Chapter Five Christian Democracy Introduction: 1. Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian principles to public policy.

Chapter Five Christian Democracy Introduction: 1. Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian principles to public policy. It emerged in 19th- century Europe, largely under the influence of Catholic social teaching, influential in Europe and Latin America, though in a number of countries its Christian ethos has been diluted by secularization. Introduction: 1. Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian principles to public policy. It emerged in 19th- century Europe, largely under the influence of Catholic social teaching, influential in Europe and Latin America, though in a number of countries its Christian ethos has been diluted by secularization.Catholic social teachingCatholic social teaching Christian democracy is often considered conservative on cultural, social and moral issues and progressive on fiscal and economic issues. In Europe, where their opponents have traditionally been secularist socialists, Christian democratic parties are moderately conservative, whereas in Latin America they tend to lean to the left. Examples of Christian democratic parties include the German Christian Democratic Union (CDU), the Christian Democrat Party of Chile and the Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland. Christian democracy is often considered conservative on cultural, social and moral issues and progressive on fiscal and economic issues. In Europe, where their opponents have traditionally been secularist socialists, Christian democratic parties are moderately conservative, whereas in Latin America they tend to lean to the left. Examples of Christian democratic parties include the German Christian Democratic Union (CDU), the Christian Democrat Party of Chile and the Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland.GermanChristian Democratic UnionChristian Democrat Party of ChileChristian Democratic People's Party of SwitzerlandGermanChristian Democratic UnionChristian Democrat Party of ChileChristian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland 2. Differences and similarities among Christian democracy, conservatism and liberalism 2. Differences and similarities among Christian democracy, conservatism and liberalism 3. Catholic social teaching is a body of social doctrine developed by several Popes of the Catholic Church since the end of the 19th Century on matters of poverty and wealth, economics, social organization and the role of the state. 3. Catholic social teaching is a body of social doctrine developed by several Popes of the Catholic Church since the end of the 19th Century on matters of poverty and wealth, economics, social organization and the role of the state.

The foundations of modern Catholic social teaching are widely considered to have been laid by Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical ( 教皇通谕 ) letter Rerum Novarum (Of New thing). According to Pope Benedict XVI, the purpose of Catholic Social Teaching: “is simply to help purify reason and to contribute, here and now, to the acknowledgment and attainment of what is just…. She [the Church] has to play her part through rational argument and she has to reawaken the spiritual energy without which justice…cannot prevail and prosper”, and according to Pope John Paul II, the foundation of Catholic social teaching “rests on the threefold cornerstones of human dignity, solidarity and subsidiarity”. The foundations of modern Catholic social teaching are widely considered to have been laid by Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical ( 教皇通谕 ) letter Rerum Novarum (Of New thing). According to Pope Benedict XVI, the purpose of Catholic Social Teaching: “is simply to help purify reason and to contribute, here and now, to the acknowledgment and attainment of what is just…. She [the Church] has to play her part through rational argument and she has to reawaken the spiritual energy without which justice…cannot prevail and prosper”, and according to Pope John Paul II, the foundation of Catholic social teaching “rests on the threefold cornerstones of human dignity, solidarity and subsidiarity”.encyclical ( ) letterRerum NovarumPope Benedict XVIPope John Paul IIencyclical ( ) letterRerum NovarumPope Benedict XVIPope John Paul II This concern echoes elements of Jewish law and the prophetic books of the Old Testament, and recalls the teachings of Jesus Christ recorded in the New Testament, such as his declaration that “whatever you have done for one of these least brothers of Mine, you have done for Me.” This concern echoes elements of Jewish law and the prophetic books of the Old Testament, and recalls the teachings of Jesus Christ recorded in the New Testament, such as his declaration that “whatever you have done for one of these least brothers of Mine, you have done for Me.”Jewish lawOld TestamentJesus ChristNew TestamentJewish lawOld TestamentJesus ChristNew Testament Catholic social doctrine is also distinctive in its consistent critiques of modern social and political ideologies both of the left and of the right: liberalism, communism, conservatism, socialism, libertarianism, capitalism, and Nazism have all been condemned, at least in their pure forms, by several Popes since the late 19th century. Catholic social doctrine is also distinctive in its consistent critiques of modern social and political ideologies both of the left and of the right: liberalism, communism, conservatism, socialism, libertarianism, capitalism, and Nazism have all been condemned, at least in their pure forms, by several Popes since the late 19th century.liberalismcommunismconservatismsocialismlibertarianism capitalismNazismliberalismcommunismconservatismsocialismlibertarianism capitalismNazism

Section One Formation and Development of Christian Democracy The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter Pope Benedict XVI in The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter Pope Benedict XVI in painted by Pietro Perugino (1492) Emblem of Papacy Pope Pius XII in 1955 St. Peter's Square, Rome in 2005 painted by Pietro Perugino (1492) Emblem of Papacy Pope Pius XII in 1955 St. Peter's Square, Rome in 2005 Benedict with then Vladimir Putin Christian Democratic People‘s Christian Democracy (Italy) German Chancellor Angela Merkel of on 13 March 2007 Party of Switzerland the Christian Democratic Union

I. The origin of Christian democracy: 1. The decline of Papal authority: The Crusades (1096-1291); Renaissance (1400s-1600s); the Reformation (1600s-1700s); French Revolution (1789); Victor Emmanuel II seized Rome from the Pope's control (1870); in 1929, the Lateran Treaty between Italy and Pope Pius XI established the Vatican guaranteed Papal independence from secular rule. Gradually forced to give up secular power, Popes focused on spiritual issues. I. The origin of Christian democracy: 1. The decline of Papal authority: The Crusades (1096-1291); Renaissance (1400s-1600s); the Reformation (1600s-1700s); French Revolution (1789); Victor Emmanuel II seized Rome from the Pope's control (1870); in 1929, the Lateran Treaty between Italy and Pope Pius XI established the Vatican guaranteed Papal independence from secular rule. Gradually forced to give up secular power, Popes focused on spiritual issues. 2. Pope’s reaction: The Syllabus of Errors, a document issued by Holy See under Pope Pius IX on December 8, 1864, Feast of the Immaculate Conception as the Pope’s encyclical Quanta Cura (Condemning Current Errors) which condemned freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and the separation of church and state; the encyclical Non expedit ( 无益, 不参政 ) of 1874 by Pope Pius IX actually forbade Catholics to participate in politics at all; the First Vatican Council of 1870 defined the doctrine of Papal infallibility; Immortal Dei of Pope Leo XIII in 1885; Pius XII's 1942 Christmas address mostly spoke about human rights and civil society; he mentioned “the hundreds of thousands of persons who sometimes only because of their nationality or race, have been consigned to death or to a slow decline”. 2. Pope’s reaction: The Syllabus of Errors, a document issued by Holy See under Pope Pius IX on December 8, 1864, Feast of the Immaculate Conception as the Pope’s encyclical Quanta Cura (Condemning Current Errors) which condemned freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and the separation of church and state; the encyclical Non expedit ( 无益, 不参政 ) of 1874 by Pope Pius IX actually forbade Catholics to participate in politics at all; the First Vatican Council of 1870 defined the doctrine of Papal infallibility; Immortal Dei of Pope Leo XIII in 1885; Pius XII's 1942 Christmas address mostly spoke about human rights and civil society; he mentioned “the hundreds of thousands of persons who sometimes only because of their nationality or race, have been consigned to death or to a slow decline”. Holy SeePope Pius IXDecember 8Feast of the Immaculate ConceptionencyclicalQuanta Curafreedom of religion freedom of speechseparation of church and stateFirst Vatican CouncilPius XII's 1942 Christmas address Holy SeePope Pius IXDecember 8Feast of the Immaculate ConceptionencyclicalQuanta Curafreedom of religion freedom of speechseparation of church and stateFirst Vatican CouncilPius XII's 1942 Christmas address

3. Matthew 19: 21-24: “If you wish to be perfect, go, sell what you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come, follow me.... Amen, I say to you, it will be hard for one who is rich to enter the kingdom of heaven. Again I say to you, it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for one who is rich to enter the kingdom of God.” By the 1800s, the restrictions on Christian participation in commerce were being widely ignored. 3. Matthew 19: 21-24: “If you wish to be perfect, go, sell what you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come, follow me.... Amen, I say to you, it will be hard for one who is rich to enter the kingdom of heaven. Again I say to you, it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for one who is rich to enter the kingdom of God.” By the 1800s, the restrictions on Christian participation in commerce were being widely ignored. Characteristics of current Catholic charity: institutions in charge of religious communities, as monasteries, hospitals, reformatories, and asylums for homeless infants, or orphans, for the deaf, dumb, blind, aged, crippled and insane; and the parish, through the informal and unorganized work of the parochial clergy. Characteristics of current Catholic charity: institutions in charge of religious communities, as monasteries, hospitals, reformatories, and asylums for homeless infants, or orphans, for the deaf, dumb, blind, aged, crippled and insane; and the parish, through the informal and unorganized work of the parochial clergy. Dedication to service is rooted in the Catholic faith. Dedication to service is rooted in the Catholic faith. 3. Between the 14th century and the 18th, however, a great change had taken place in the world. Dogmatic theology had lost its hold upon many educated men. The Renaissance movement; the reformation (Luther or Calvin); Protestantism; pantheism; deism; The Enlightenment; rationalism. 3. Between the 14th century and the 18th, however, a great change had taken place in the world. Dogmatic theology had lost its hold upon many educated men. The Renaissance movement; the reformation (Luther or Calvin); Protestantism; pantheism; deism; The Enlightenment; rationalism.

A discernible current of religious liberalism ripples through all periods of American history, but between 1870 and 1970 that current overflowed its banks and exerted a powerful influence upon American culture as a whole. On the far left, so to speak, stood religious naturalism. In the center of the spectrum stood religious modernism. Evangelical liberalism occupied the right side of the spectrum. A discernible current of religious liberalism ripples through all periods of American history, but between 1870 and 1970 that current overflowed its banks and exerted a powerful influence upon American culture as a whole. On the far left, so to speak, stood religious naturalism. In the center of the spectrum stood religious modernism. Evangelical liberalism occupied the right side of the spectrum. In the 1930s, the Catholic Social Movement was committed to social justice, vigorously antagonistic to the more radical Labor party and communism... The Catholic Worker Movement is a collection of autonomous communities of Catholics and their associates founded in 1933, aimed to “live in accordance with the justice and charity of Jesus Christ.” One of its guiding principles is hospitality towards those on the margin of society. To this end, the Catholic Worker movement claims over 185 local Catholic Worker communities providing social services. The movement campaigns for nonviolence and is active in opposing both war and the unequal distribution of wealth globally. In the 1930s, the Catholic Social Movement was committed to social justice, vigorously antagonistic to the more radical Labor party and communism... The Catholic Worker Movement is a collection of autonomous communities of Catholics and their associates founded in 1933, aimed to “live in accordance with the justice and charity of Jesus Christ.” One of its guiding principles is hospitality towards those on the margin of society. To this end, the Catholic Worker movement claims over 185 local Catholic Worker communities providing social services. The movement campaigns for nonviolence and is active in opposing both war and the unequal distribution of wealth globally.

II. The developmental course of Christian democracy: 1. Period of clericalism ( 教权主义 ): The rudimentary and probing period of Christian democracy (1800s to mid 1900s): the encyclical, Of New Things: On Capital and Labor by Pope Leo XIII: “In regard to the Church, her cooperation will never be found lacking, be the time or the occasion what it may; and she will intervene with all the greater effect in proportion as her liberty of action is the more unfettered. Let this be carefully taken to heart by those whose office is to safeguard the public welfare. Every minister of holy religion must bring to the struggle the full energy of his mind and all his power of endurance. Moved by your authority, venerable brethren, and quickened by your example, they should never cease to urge upon men of every class, upon the high-placed as well as the lowly, the Gospel doctrines of Christian life; by every means in their power they must strive to secure the good of the people; and above all must earnestly cherish in themselves, and try to arouse in others, charity, the mistress and the queen of virtues.” II. The developmental course of Christian democracy: 1. Period of clericalism ( 教权主义 ): The rudimentary and probing period of Christian democracy (1800s to mid 1900s): the encyclical, Of New Things: On Capital and Labor by Pope Leo XIII: “In regard to the Church, her cooperation will never be found lacking, be the time or the occasion what it may; and she will intervene with all the greater effect in proportion as her liberty of action is the more unfettered. Let this be carefully taken to heart by those whose office is to safeguard the public welfare. Every minister of holy religion must bring to the struggle the full energy of his mind and all his power of endurance. Moved by your authority, venerable brethren, and quickened by your example, they should never cease to urge upon men of every class, upon the high-placed as well as the lowly, the Gospel doctrines of Christian life; by every means in their power they must strive to secure the good of the people; and above all must earnestly cherish in themselves, and try to arouse in others, charity, the mistress and the queen of virtues.”

GRAVES DE COMMUNI RE (Christian Democracy), Encyclical of Pope Leo XIII promulgated on 18 January 1901: “Christian Democracy, by the fact that it is Christian, is built, and necessarily so, on the basic principles of divine faith, and it must provide better conditions for the masses, with the ulterior ( 日后的 ) object of promoting the perfection of souls made for things eternal. Hence, for Christian Democracy, justice is sacred; it must maintain that the right of acquiring and possessing property cannot be impugned ( 责难 ), and it must safeguard the various distinctions and degrees which are indispensable in every well-ordered commonwealth. Finally, it must endeavor to preserve in every human society the form and the character which God ever impresses on it. It is clear, therefore, that there is nothing in common between Social and Christian Democracy. They differ from each other as much as the sect of socialism differs from the profession of Christianity.” GRAVES DE COMMUNI RE (Christian Democracy), Encyclical of Pope Leo XIII promulgated on 18 January 1901: “Christian Democracy, by the fact that it is Christian, is built, and necessarily so, on the basic principles of divine faith, and it must provide better conditions for the masses, with the ulterior ( 日后的 ) object of promoting the perfection of souls made for things eternal. Hence, for Christian Democracy, justice is sacred; it must maintain that the right of acquiring and possessing property cannot be impugned ( 责难 ), and it must safeguard the various distinctions and degrees which are indispensable in every well-ordered commonwealth. Finally, it must endeavor to preserve in every human society the form and the character which God ever impresses on it. It is clear, therefore, that there is nothing in common between Social and Christian Democracy. They differ from each other as much as the sect of socialism differs from the profession of Christianity.” The Vatican’s claim of the right to forbid Italians to vote was upheld well into the first decades of the 20th century, and although it was slightly modified in 1905, and Catholic candidates participated in the elections of 1904, 1909, and 1913, the ban on Catholics taking part in the political life of the nation was not lifted until some time after the First World War. The Vatican’s claim of the right to forbid Italians to vote was upheld well into the first decades of the 20th century, and although it was slightly modified in 1905, and Catholic candidates participated in the elections of 1904, 1909, and 1913, the ban on Catholics taking part in the political life of the nation was not lifted until some time after the First World War.

While Christian democracy is of Roman Catholic origin, it has been adopted by many Protestant and Orthodox Christians as well. It can trace its philosophical roots back to Thomas Aquinas and the Christian tradition. According to him, human rights are defined as the things that humans need to function properly. For example, food is a human right because without food humans cannot function properly. While Christian democracy is of Roman Catholic origin, it has been adopted by many Protestant and Orthodox Christians as well. It can trace its philosophical roots back to Thomas Aquinas and the Christian tradition. According to him, human rights are defined as the things that humans need to function properly. For example, food is a human right because without food humans cannot function properly.ProtestantOrthodoxThomas AquinasProtestantOrthodoxThomas Aquinas Don Luigi Sturzo ( 斯图尔佐,1871 – 1959) was an Italian Catholic priest and politician, Known in his lifetime as a “clerical socialist,” one of the fathers of Christian democracy. Sturzo was one of the founders of the Italian People’s Party in 1919, but was forced into exile in 1924 with the rise of Italian fascism. Don Luigi Sturzo ( 斯图尔佐,1871 – 1959) was an Italian Catholic priest and politician, Known in his lifetime as a “clerical socialist,” one of the fathers of Christian democracy. Sturzo was one of the founders of the Italian People’s Party in 1919, but was forced into exile in 1924 with the rise of Italian fascism. Romolo Murri ( 穆里,1870-1944), a leader of the Italian Catholic Democrats, who was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. The excommunication deprives the priest of all ecclesiastical communion ( 共享、交谊 ), being equivalent to an anathema （革出教门、诅咒）, which is pronounced upon the greatest offenders only. Romolo Murri ( 穆里,1870-1944), a leader of the Italian Catholic Democrats, who was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. The excommunication deprives the priest of all ecclesiastical communion ( 共享、交谊 ), being equivalent to an anathema （革出教门、诅咒）, which is pronounced upon the greatest offenders only. Dominique Lacordaire ( 拉科代尔,1802 - 1861) French Roman Catholic preacher and liberal. Ordained in 1827, he came under the influence of Robert de Lamennais (1780-1860, French Roman- Catholic priest) and collaborated with him on Avenir, a journal advocating ultramontanism ( 教皇至上论 ), complete freedom of the church from the state, and a wide program of democratic reform. Dominique Lacordaire ( 拉科代尔,1802 - 1861) French Roman Catholic preacher and liberal. Ordained in 1827, he came under the influence of Robert de Lamennais (1780-1860, French Roman- Catholic priest) and collaborated with him on Avenir, a journal advocating ultramontanism ( 教皇至上论 ), complete freedom of the church from the state, and a wide program of democratic reform.LamennaisultramontanismLamennaisultramontanism

Many studies and stories have already been written about the thundering silence of Pope Pius XII, who reigned in the Vatican during World War II., helped hide and launder property that had been stolen from, among others, Jews and was involved in the sheltering and smuggling of Croatian （克罗地亚的） war criminals, and enabled a Church underground to save tens or hundreds of thousands of Jewish lives. Many studies and stories have already been written about the thundering silence of Pope Pius XII, who reigned in the Vatican during World War II., helped hide and launder property that had been stolen from, among others, Jews and was involved in the sheltering and smuggling of Croatian （克罗地亚的） war criminals, and enabled a Church underground to save tens or hundreds of thousands of Jewish lives. 2. The period of democratization: Formation and great development of Christian democracy (end of WW II to the 1990s): Christian Social Union of Bavaria (CSU), Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU) is a Christian democratic and Liberal conservative political party in Germany. Along with its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, forms the CDU/CSU grouping in the Bundestag. 2. The period of democratization: Formation and great development of Christian democracy (end of WW II to the 1990s): Christian Social Union of Bavaria (CSU), Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU) is a Christian democratic and Liberal conservative political party in Germany. Along with its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, forms the CDU/CSU grouping in the Bundestag.CDU/CSU Union of Christian and Centre Democrats (UDC) in Italy, a member of the European People’s Party (EPP) and of the Centrist Democrat International (CDI). Union of Christian and Centre Democrats (UDC) in Italy, a member of the European People’s Party (EPP) and of the Centrist Democrat International (CDI). Christian Social Party (CSP) is a party of Belgium. In the 2004 European Parliament election, gained the single seat allocated by Belgian law to the German-speaking community. Christian Social Party (CSP) is a party of Belgium. In the 2004 European Parliament election, gained the single seat allocated by Belgian law to the German-speaking community.

Christian Social People’s Party is the largest political party in Luxembourg. The party follows a Christian Democratic and conservative ideology and is a member of the European People’s Party, and an associate member of the International Democrat Union. Christian Social People’s Party is the largest political party in Luxembourg. The party follows a Christian Democratic and conservative ideology and is a member of the European People’s Party, and an associate member of the International Democrat Union. Christian Democratic People’s Party of Switzerland is a centrist political party in Switzerland, a member of the four-party coalition government, and associated member of EPP. Christian Democratic People’s Party of Switzerland is a centrist political party in Switzerland, a member of the four-party coalition government, and associated member of EPP. African Christian Democratic Party in South Africa was founded in 1993. The party concentrates mostly on “moral” issues such as abortion, homosexuality and pornography. African Christian Democratic Party in South Africa was founded in 1993. The party concentrates mostly on “moral” issues such as abortion, homosexuality and pornography. Christian Democratic Party of Chile is a political party in Chile and governs as part of the Coalition of Parties for Democracy coalition. The origins of the party go back to the 1930s. Christian Democratic Party of Chile is a political party in Chile and governs as part of the Coalition of Parties for Democracy coalition. The origins of the party go back to the 1930s. Christian democratic parties in Australia are said to include not only the party called “The Christian Democratic Party”, but also the Democratic Labor Party and Family First Party. The principle of supranationality was strongly promoted by transnational Christian democracy against the backdrop of its parallels to the “quasi- supranational authority of the Pope”, whose crucial task was to defend European civilization against a “new Islam”, the Communist Soviet Union. The notion of “core Europe”, too, had a Christian democratic “imprint”. Christian democratic parties in Australia are said to include not only the party called “The Christian Democratic Party”, but also the Democratic Labor Party and Family First Party. The principle of supranationality was strongly promoted by transnational Christian democracy against the backdrop of its parallels to the “quasi- supranational authority of the Pope”, whose crucial task was to defend European civilization against a “new Islam”, the Communist Soviet Union. The notion of “core Europe”, too, had a Christian democratic “imprint”.

3. Christian democracy in power since 1990: Giulio Andreotti ( 朱利奥. 安德烈奥蒂 ) served as Prime Minister of Italy from 1972 to 1973, from 1976 to 1979, and from 1989 to 1992. 3. Christian democracy in power since 1990: Giulio Andreotti ( 朱利奥. 安德烈奥蒂 ) served as Prime Minister of Italy from 1972 to 1973, from 1976 to 1979, and from 1989 to 1992. Patricio Azócar ( 帕特里西奥 · 艾尔文 ) was the first president of Chile after its return to democratic rule in 1990. Patricio Azócar ( 帕特里西奥 · 艾尔文 ) was the first president of Chile after its return to democratic rule in 1990. Rafael Rodríguez ( 拉斐尔 · 罗德里格斯 ) was president of Venezuela from 1969 to 1974 and from 1994 to 1999. Rafael Rodríguez ( 拉斐尔 · 罗德里格斯 ) was president of Venezuela from 1969 to 1974 and from 1994 to 1999. Felipe Hinojosa ( 费利佩 · 伊诺霍萨 ) is the current President of Mexico. Felipe Hinojosa ( 费利佩 · 伊诺霍萨 ) is the current President of Mexico. Wilfried Martens ( 马尔滕斯 ) has been Belgian Prime Minister nine times before 1993. Wilfried Martens ( 马尔滕斯 ) has been Belgian Prime Minister nine times before 1993. Kjell Bondevik ( 谢尔 · 邦德维克 ), a Lutheran minister, served as Prime Minister of Norway from 1997 to 2000, and from 2001 to 2005. Kjell Bondevik ( 谢尔 · 邦德维克 ), a Lutheran minister, served as Prime Minister of Norway from 1997 to 2000, and from 2001 to 2005. Angela Merkel is the current Chancellor of Germany. Angela Merkel is the current Chancellor of Germany. Fidel Valdez Ramos ( 菲德尔 · 拉莫斯 ) was the 12th President of the Philippines, retired in 1998. Fidel Valdez Ramos ( 菲德尔 · 拉莫斯 ) was the 12th President of the Philippines, retired in 1998. Wolfgang Schüssel ( 沃尔夫冈许塞尔 ), was Chancellor of Austria from 2000 to 2007. Wolfgang Schüssel ( 沃尔夫冈许塞尔 ), was Chancellor of Austria from 2000 to 2007. Joaquín Antonio Balaguer Ricardo ( 华金 · 安东尼奥 · 巴拉格尔 · 里卡尔多 ) was the President of the Dominican Republic from 1960 to 1962, from 1966 to 1978, and from 1986 to 1996. Joaquín Antonio Balaguer Ricardo ( 华金 · 安东尼奥 · 巴拉格尔 · 里卡尔多 ) was the President of the Dominican Republic from 1960 to 1962, from 1966 to 1978, and from 1986 to 1996.

III. Characteristics of Christian democracy: In common with conservatism, traditional moral values (on marriage, abortion, etc.), opposition to secularization, a view of the evolutionary (as opposed to revolutionary) development of society, an emphasis on law and order, and a rejection of communism. In contrast to conservatism, open to change and not necessarily supportive of the social status quo. III. Characteristics of Christian democracy: In common with conservatism, traditional moral values (on marriage, abortion, etc.), opposition to secularization, a view of the evolutionary (as opposed to revolutionary) development of society, an emphasis on law and order, and a rejection of communism. In contrast to conservatism, open to change and not necessarily supportive of the social status quo. In common with liberalism, an emphasis on human rights and individual initiative. In contrast to liberalism, a rejection of secularism, and an emphasis on the fact that the individual is part of a community and has duties towards it. In common with liberalism, an emphasis on human rights and individual initiative. In contrast to liberalism, a rejection of secularism, and an emphasis on the fact that the individual is part of a community and has duties towards it. In common with socialism, an emphasis on the community, social solidarity, support for a welfare state, and support for some regulation of market forces. In contrast with socialism, supports a free market and is against the class struggle doctrine. In common with socialism, an emphasis on the community, social solidarity, support for a welfare state, and support for some regulation of market forces. In contrast with socialism, supports a free market and is against the class struggle doctrine. 1. National party transcending classes. 1. National party transcending classes. 2. Inclusiveness and flexibility based on pluralism and compromise: catch-all party. 2. Inclusiveness and flexibility based on pluralism and compromise: catch-all party. 3. Pragmatism and opportunism as a result of integration, compromise, conciliation and coexistence. 3. Pragmatism and opportunism as a result of integration, compromise, conciliation and coexistence. 4. Multiple factions, disunion, and realignment as a result of plural coexistence. 4. Multiple factions, disunion, and realignment as a result of plural coexistence.

Section Two Basic Theories and Principles of Christian Democracy Introduction: Christian democracy is often considered conservative on cultural, social and moral issues and progressive on fiscal and economic issues. In Europe, where their opponents have traditionally been secularist socialists, Christian democratic parties are moderately conservative overall, whereas in the very different cultural and political environment of Latin America they tend to lean to the left. Introduction: Christian democracy is often considered conservative on cultural, social and moral issues and progressive on fiscal and economic issues. In Europe, where their opponents have traditionally been secularist socialists, Christian democratic parties are moderately conservative overall, whereas in the very different cultural and political environment of Latin America they tend to lean to the left. I. The theoretical basis of Christian democracy: 1. The relevant faith in Bible: (1) Bible respects authority and order: Leviticus ( 利未记 ), The Old Testament, 20:9 Every man cursing his father or his mother is certainly to be put to death. (2) Bible forbids incest, sodomy, promiscuous sex, bestiality, rape homosexuals: Leviticus, 20:10 And if a man has sex relations with another man’s wife, even the wife of his neighbor, he and she are certainly to be put to death. I. The theoretical basis of Christian democracy: 1. The relevant faith in Bible: (1) Bible respects authority and order: Leviticus ( 利未记 ), The Old Testament, 20:9 Every man cursing his father or his mother is certainly to be put to death. (2) Bible forbids incest, sodomy, promiscuous sex, bestiality, rape homosexuals: Leviticus, 20:10 And if a man has sex relations with another man’s wife, even the wife of his neighbor, he and she are certainly to be put to death. 20:11 And the man who has sex relations with his father’s wife has put shame on his father: the two of them are to be put to death; their blood will be on them. 20:11 And the man who has sex relations with his father’s wife has put shame on his father: the two of them are to be put to death; their blood will be on them.

20:12 And if a man has sex relations with his son’s wife, the two of them are to be put to death: it is unnatural; their blood will be on them. 20:12 And if a man has sex relations with his son’s wife, the two of them are to be put to death: it is unnatural; their blood will be on them. 20:13 And if a man has sex relations with a man, the two of them have done a disgusting thing: let them be put to death; their blood will be on them. 20:13 And if a man has sex relations with a man, the two of them have done a disgusting thing: let them be put to death; their blood will be on them. 20:14 And if a man takes as wife a woman and her mother, it is an act of shame; let them be burned with fire, all three of them, so that there may be no shame among you. 20:14 And if a man takes as wife a woman and her mother, it is an act of shame; let them be burned with fire, all three of them, so that there may be no shame among you. 20:15 And if a man has sex relations with a beast, let him be put to death, and let the beast be put to destruction. 20:15 And if a man has sex relations with a beast, let him be put to death, and let the beast be put to destruction. 20:16 And if a woman goes near a beast and has sex relations with it, you will put an end to the woman and the beast: their blood will be on them. 20:16 And if a woman goes near a beast and has sex relations with it, you will put an end to the woman and the beast: their blood will be on them. 20:17 And if a man takes his sister, daughter of his father or his mother, and has sex relations with her and she with him, it is an act of shame: they are to be cut off before the children of their people; he has had sex relations with his sister, and his sin will be on him. 20:17 And if a man takes his sister, daughter of his father or his mother, and has sex relations with her and she with him, it is an act of shame: they are to be cut off before the children of their people; he has had sex relations with his sister, and his sin will be on him. 20:18 And if a man has sex relations with a woman at the time when she is unwell, he has seen her fountain and she has let the fountain of her blood be uncovered, and the two of them are to be cut off from among their people. 20:18 And if a man has sex relations with a woman at the time when she is unwell, he has seen her fountain and she has let the fountain of her blood be uncovered, and the two of them are to be cut off from among their people.

20:19 And you may not have sex connection with your mother’s sister or your father’s sister, for they are his near relations: their sin will be on them. 20:19 And you may not have sex connection with your mother’s sister or your father’s sister, for they are his near relations: their sin will be on them. 20:20 And if a man has sex relations with the wife of his father’s brother, he has put shame on his father’s brother: their sin will be on them; till the day of their death they will have no children. 20:20 And if a man has sex relations with the wife of his father’s brother, he has put shame on his father’s brother: their sin will be on them; till the day of their death they will have no children. 20:21 And if a man takes his brother’s wife, it is an unclean act; he has put shame on his brother; they will have no children. 20:21 And if a man takes his brother’s wife, it is an unclean act; he has put shame on his brother; they will have no children. 20:22 So then, keep my rules and my decisions and do them, so that the land which I am giving you as your resting-place may not violently send you out again. 20:22 So then, keep my rules and my decisions and do them, so that the land which I am giving you as your resting-place may not violently send you out again. (3) Bible supports equality among human beings: The Bible insists that all human beings, male and female, are made in God’s image. (3) Bible supports equality among human beings: The Bible insists that all human beings, male and female, are made in God’s image. We’re all descended from one set of parents, Adam and Eve, and therefore are brothers and sisters. So no race or group is inherently superior or inferior to any other. We’re all equal because we’re all sinners, and because God loves us all equally. So we are all equally valuable in the eyes of the most important Valuer. We’re all bound by, and protected by, the same moral law that originates from the same God. No one—not even a king—is exempt. This is the basis for political equality. We’re all descended from one set of parents, Adam and Eve, and therefore are brothers and sisters. So no race or group is inherently superior or inferior to any other. We’re all equal because we’re all sinners, and because God loves us all equally. So we are all equally valuable in the eyes of the most important Valuer. We’re all bound by, and protected by, the same moral law that originates from the same God. No one—not even a king—is exempt. This is the basis for political equality.

(4) Bible encouraged charity—self-sacrifice for the less fortunate: Matthew, New Testament, 25:40 And the King will make answer and say to them, truly I say to you, Because you did it to the least of these my brothers, you did it to me. (4) Bible encouraged charity—self-sacrifice for the less fortunate: Matthew, New Testament, 25:40 And the King will make answer and say to them, truly I say to you, Because you did it to the least of these my brothers, you did it to me. (5) Bible encourages tolerance: Matthew, 5:39 But I say to you, Do not make use of force against an evil man; but to him who gives you a blow on the right side of your face let the left be turned. (5) Bible encourages tolerance: Matthew, 5:39 But I say to you, Do not make use of force against an evil man; but to him who gives you a blow on the right side of your face let the left be turned. 2. New flexible theological interpretations: Jacques Maritain ( 马里坦,1882-1973), French philosopher and political thinker, was one of the principal exponents of Thomism in the 20th century and an influential interpreter of the thought of St Thomas Aquinas. 2. New flexible theological interpretations: Jacques Maritain ( 马里坦,1882-1973), French philosopher and political thinker, was one of the principal exponents of Thomism in the 20th century and an influential interpreter of the thought of St Thomas Aquinas. Étienne Gilson ( 基尔松,1884 - 1978) was a French Thomistic philosopher and historian of philosophy. Étienne Gilson ( 基尔松,1884 - 1978) was a French Thomistic philosopher and historian of philosophy. Karl Barth ( 巴特,1886–1968) was a Swiss reformed theologian whom critics hold to be among the most important Christian thinkers of the 20th century. He embarked on a new theological path initially called dialectical theology, due to its stress on the paradoxical nature of divine truth. The most accurate description of his work might be “a theology of the Word.” Barth’s theological thought emphasized the sovereignty of God, particularly through his innovative doctrine of election ( double predestination, divine election and reprobation ). Karl Barth ( 巴特,1886–1968) was a Swiss reformed theologian whom critics hold to be among the most important Christian thinkers of the 20th century. He embarked on a new theological path initially called dialectical theology, due to its stress on the paradoxical nature of divine truth. The most accurate description of his work might be “a theology of the Word.” Barth’s theological thought emphasized the sovereignty of God, particularly through his innovative doctrine of election ( double predestination, divine election and reprobation ).dialectical theology electiondialectical theology election

(1) Neo-Thomism (Neo-Scholasticism) is the revival and development from the second half of the 19th century of medieval scholastic philosophy. God, pure actuality and absolute perfection, alone can create and preserve all beings other than Himself. (1) Neo-Thomism (Neo-Scholasticism) is the revival and development from the second half of the 19th century of medieval scholastic philosophy. God, pure actuality and absolute perfection, alone can create and preserve all beings other than Himself. As to our knowledge of the material world: whatever exists is itself, an incommunicable, individual substance. As to our knowledge of the material world: whatever exists is itself, an incommunicable, individual substance. Man, a compound of body (matter) and of soul (form), puts forth activities of a higher order -- knowledge and volition. Here, too, is the foundation of logic and of the theory of knowledge, the justification of our judgments and syllogisms ( 三段论，演绎推理，诡辩 ). Man, a compound of body (matter) and of soul (form), puts forth activities of a higher order -- knowledge and volition. Here, too, is the foundation of logic and of the theory of knowledge, the justification of our judgments and syllogisms ( 三段论，演绎推理，诡辩 ). The will in certain conditions is free, and thanks to this liberty man is the master of his destiny. Like all other beings, we have an end to attain and we are morally obliged, though not compelled, to attain it. The will in certain conditions is free, and thanks to this liberty man is the master of his destiny. Like all other beings, we have an end to attain and we are morally obliged, though not compelled, to attain it.is freeis free Natural happiness would result from the full development of our powers of knowing and loving. We should find and possess God in this world since the corporeal world is the proper object of our intelligence. But above nature is the order of grace and our supernatural happiness will consist in the direct intuition of God, the beatific vision. Here philosophy ends and theology begins. Natural happiness would result from the full development of our powers of knowing and loving. We should find and possess God in this world since the corporeal world is the proper object of our intelligence. But above nature is the order of grace and our supernatural happiness will consist in the direct intuition of God, the beatific vision. Here philosophy ends and theology begins. (2) Personalism: Only persons are real (in the ontological sense); only persons have value, and only persons have free will. (2) Personalism: Only persons are real (in the ontological sense); only persons have value, and only persons have free will.ontologicalfree willontologicalfree will

Borden Parker Bowne ( 鲍恩,1847-1910) was an American Christian philosopher and theologian in the Methodist ( 卫理公会 ) tradition. He was a professor of philosophy at Boston University for more than 30 years. He was an acute critic of positivism & naturalism. He categorized his views as transcendental empiricism and, finally, Personalism, a philosophical branch of liberal theology, of which Bowne is the dominant figure. His masterpiece, Metaphysics, appeared in 1882. Borden Parker Bowne ( 鲍恩,1847-1910) was an American Christian philosopher and theologian in the Methodist ( 卫理公会 ) tradition. He was a professor of philosophy at Boston University for more than 30 years. He was an acute critic of positivism & naturalism. He categorized his views as transcendental empiricism and, finally, Personalism, a philosophical branch of liberal theology, of which Bowne is the dominant figure. His masterpiece, Metaphysics, appeared in 1882.Methodistpositivismnaturalism Personalismliberal theologyMethodistpositivismnaturalism Personalismliberal theology II. Theoretical principles of Christian democracy: 1. The Christian principle: Alcide De Gasperi ( 德加斯佩里,1881 – 1954) was an Italian statesman and politician and founder of the Christian Democratic Party, one of the Founding fathers of the European Union. He was opposed to both Fascism and communism. From 1945 to 1953 he was the prime minister of eight successive coalition governments. II. Theoretical principles of Christian democracy: 1. The Christian principle: Alcide De Gasperi ( 德加斯佩里,1881 – 1954) was an Italian statesman and politician and founder of the Christian Democratic Party, one of the Founding fathers of the European Union. He was opposed to both Fascism and communism. From 1945 to 1953 he was the prime minister of eight successive coalition governments. Catholic social teaching is a body of social doctrine developed by several popes since the end of the 19th Century on matters of poverty and wealth, economics, social organization and the role of the state. Catholic social teaching is a body of social doctrine developed by several popes since the end of the 19th Century on matters of poverty and wealth, economics, social organization and the role of the state.

The foundations of modern Catholic social teaching are widely considered to have been laid by Pope Leo XIII’s 1891 encyclical letter, Of New Things. According to Pope Benedict XVI, the purpose of Catholic Social Teaching: “is simply to help purify reason and to contribute, here and now, to the acknowledgment and attainment of what is just…. She [the Church] has to play her part through rational argument and she has to reawaken the spiritual energy without which justice…cannot prevail and prosper”, and according to Pope John Paul II, the foundation of Catholic social teaching “rests on the threefold cornerstones of human dignity, solidarity and subsidiarity”. This concern echoes elements of Jewish law and the prophetic books of the Old Testament and New Testament, such as Jesus Christ’s declaration that “whatever you have done for one of these least brothers of Mine, you have done for Me.” The foundations of modern Catholic social teaching are widely considered to have been laid by Pope Leo XIII’s 1891 encyclical letter, Of New Things. According to Pope Benedict XVI, the purpose of Catholic Social Teaching: “is simply to help purify reason and to contribute, here and now, to the acknowledgment and attainment of what is just…. She [the Church] has to play her part through rational argument and she has to reawaken the spiritual energy without which justice…cannot prevail and prosper”, and according to Pope John Paul II, the foundation of Catholic social teaching “rests on the threefold cornerstones of human dignity, solidarity and subsidiarity”. This concern echoes elements of Jewish law and the prophetic books of the Old Testament and New Testament, such as Jesus Christ’s declaration that “whatever you have done for one of these least brothers of Mine, you have done for Me.” Catholic social doctrine is also distinctive in its consistent critiques of modern social and political ideologies both of the left and of the right: liberalism, communism, conservatism, socialism, libertarianism, capitalism, and Nazism have all been condemned. Catholic social doctrine is also distinctive in its consistent critiques of modern social and political ideologies both of the left and of the right: liberalism, communism, conservatism, socialism, libertarianism, capitalism, and Nazism have all been condemned.liberalismcommunismconservatismsocialismlibertarianism capitalismNazismliberalismcommunismconservatismsocialismlibertarianism capitalismNazism In 1891, Pope Leo XIII wrote Of New Things, which placed the dignity of work and the rights of workers at the center of Catholic teaching. In 1891, Pope Leo XIII wrote Of New Things, which placed the dignity of work and the rights of workers at the center of Catholic teaching.

Encyclical On peace in truth, justice, charity and liberty (Peace on Earth) issued by Pope John XXIII on April 11, 1963 was the first encyclical that the Pope did not address to the Catholic faithful only, but also to “all men of good will”. It reacted to the then political situation in the middle of the Cold War. It was issued only two years after the erection of the Berlin Wall and only a few months after the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Pope explains that conflicts “should not be resolved by recourse to arms, but rather by negotiation”. He emphasizes the importance of respect of human rights as an essential consequence of the Christian understanding of men. He clearly establishes, “...That every man has the right to life, to bodily integrity, and to the means which are suitable for the proper development of life...” Encyclical On peace in truth, justice, charity and liberty (Peace on Earth) issued by Pope John XXIII on April 11, 1963 was the first encyclical that the Pope did not address to the Catholic faithful only, but also to “all men of good will”. It reacted to the then political situation in the middle of the Cold War. It was issued only two years after the erection of the Berlin Wall and only a few months after the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Pope explains that conflicts “should not be resolved by recourse to arms, but rather by negotiation”. He emphasizes the importance of respect of human rights as an essential consequence of the Christian understanding of men. He clearly establishes, “...That every man has the right to life, to bodily integrity, and to the means which are suitable for the proper development of life...”CatholicCold WarBerlin Wall Cuban Missile Crisishuman rightsChristianCatholicCold WarBerlin Wall Cuban Missile Crisishuman rightsChristian Pope John Paul II’s encyclical On Human Work, issued on September14, 1981, is explicitly based upon the record of man’s creation in God’s own image and likeness, and hence of great interest to modern biblical creationist (vs. traducianism, 灵魂遗传论 ) Christians of all branches of Christendom. “Work is one of the characteristics that distinguish man from the rest of creatures, whose activity for sustaining their lives cannot be called work”. “Man is the image of God partly through the mandate received from his creator to subdue, to dominate, the earth..” Pope John Paul II’s encyclical On Human Work, issued on September14, 1981, is explicitly based upon the record of man’s creation in God’s own image and likeness, and hence of great interest to modern biblical creationist (vs. traducianism, 灵魂遗传论 ) Christians of all branches of Christendom. “Work is one of the characteristics that distinguish man from the rest of creatures, whose activity for sustaining their lives cannot be called work”. “Man is the image of God partly through the mandate received from his creator to subdue, to dominate, the earth..”

Basic Law of 1949 is the constitution of West Germany, which establishes that “human dignity is inviolable” and that human rights are directly applicable law, and remained in force after reunion in 1990. The CDU was the dominant party in West Germany for the first two decades following its establishment in 1949. Basic Law of 1949 is the constitution of West Germany, which establishes that “human dignity is inviolable” and that human rights are directly applicable law, and remained in force after reunion in 1990. The CDU was the dominant party in West Germany for the first two decades following its establishment in 1949. 2. Democratic principle: incorporates both traditional church and family values and progressive values such as social welfare. In 2004, in Australia, a Family First party won a seat in the election of Victoria State. 2. Democratic principle: incorporates both traditional church and family values and progressive values such as social welfare. In 2004, in Australia, a Family First party won a seat in the election of Victoria State. Encyclical Christian Democracy by Pope Leo XIII in 1901: “For it embraces all men, irrespective of ranks, as members of one and the same family, children of the same most beneficent Father, redeemed by the same Savior, and called to the same eternal heritage.” “Wherefore, on account of the union established by nature between the common people and the other classes of society, and which Christian brotherhood makes still closer, whatever diligence we devote to assisting the people will certainly profit also the other classes, the more so since, as will be thereafter shown, their cooperation is proper and necessary for the success of this undertaking.” Encyclical Christian Democracy by Pope Leo XIII in 1901: “For it embraces all men, irrespective of ranks, as members of one and the same family, children of the same most beneficent Father, redeemed by the same Savior, and called to the same eternal heritage.” “Wherefore, on account of the union established by nature between the common people and the other classes of society, and which Christian brotherhood makes still closer, whatever diligence we devote to assisting the people will certainly profit also the other classes, the more so since, as will be thereafter shown, their cooperation is proper and necessary for the success of this undertaking.”

“That is to inculcate in the minds of the people, in a brotherly way and whenever the opportunity presents itself, the following principles; viz.: to keep aloof on all occasions from seditious acts and seditious men; to hold inviolate the rights of others; to show a proper respect to superiors; to willingly perform the work in which they are employed; not to grow weary of the restraint of family life which in many ways is so advantageous; to keep to their religious practices above all, and in their hardships and trials to have recourse to the Church for consolation.” “That is to inculcate in the minds of the people, in a brotherly way and whenever the opportunity presents itself, the following principles; viz.: to keep aloof on all occasions from seditious acts and seditious men; to hold inviolate the rights of others; to show a proper respect to superiors; to willingly perform the work in which they are employed; not to grow weary of the restraint of family life which in many ways is so advantageous; to keep to their religious practices above all, and in their hardships and trials to have recourse to the Church for consolation.” 3. Integration: Ecumenism, inclusiveness, supranationalism and middle road. Catch-all parties; promotion of European Union. 3. Integration: Ecumenism, inclusiveness, supranationalism and middle road. Catch-all parties; promotion of European Union. Robert Schuman ( 舒曼,1886 – 1963) was a Christian Democrat. Twice Prime Minister of France, a reformist Minister of Finance and a Foreign Minister, he was instrumental in building post-war European and trans-Atlantic institutions and is regarded as one of the founders of the European Union, the Council of Europe and NATO. Robert Schuman ( 舒曼,1886 – 1963) was a Christian Democrat. Twice Prime Minister of France, a reformist Minister of Finance and a Foreign Minister, he was instrumental in building post-war European and trans-Atlantic institutions and is regarded as one of the founders of the European Union, the Council of Europe and NATO.Christian DemocratChristian Democrat

Konrad Hermann Josef Adenauer (1876 –1967) was most noted for his role as the first Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1949–1963 and Chairman of the Christian Democratic Union from 1950 to 1966. As a Catholic Centre Party politician in the Weimar Republic, he served as Mayor of Cologne ( 科隆 ) (1917–1933) and president of the Prussian state council (1922–1933). He unconditionally committed to western-style democracy and European integration. Konrad Hermann Josef Adenauer (1876 –1967) was most noted for his role as the first Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1949–1963 and Chairman of the Christian Democratic Union from 1950 to 1966. As a Catholic Centre Party politician in the Weimar Republic, he served as Mayor of Cologne ( 科隆 ) (1917–1933) and president of the Prussian state council (1922–1933). He unconditionally committed to western-style democracy and European integration.Christian Democratic UnionCatholic Centre Party Weimar RepublicMayor of CologneChristian Democratic UnionCatholic Centre Party Weimar RepublicMayor of Cologne Alcide De Gasperi ( 德加斯佩里,1881–1954) was an Italian statesman and politician and founder of the Christian Democratic Party, one of the Founding fathers of the European Union. Alcide De Gasperi ( 德加斯佩里,1881–1954) was an Italian statesman and politician and founder of the Christian Democratic Party, one of the Founding fathers of the European Union. Helmut Josef Michael Kohl ( 科尔,1930-) is a German conservative politician and statesman. He was Chancellor of Germany from 1982 to 1998 and the Chairman of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) from 1973 to 1998. His 16-year tenure was the longest of any German chancellor since Otto von Bismarck. Kohl is widely regarded as one of the main architects of the German reunification and, together with French President François Mitterrand, which created the European Union. Helmut Josef Michael Kohl ( 科尔,1930-) is a German conservative politician and statesman. He was Chancellor of Germany from 1982 to 1998 and the Chairman of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) from 1973 to 1998. His 16-year tenure was the longest of any German chancellor since Otto von Bismarck. Kohl is widely regarded as one of the main architects of the German reunification and, together with French President François Mitterrand, which created the European Union.Christian Democratic UnionOtto von BismarckFrançois Mitterrand European UnionChristian Democratic UnionOtto von BismarckFrançois Mitterrand European Union

Kohl and François Mitterrand were the joint recipients of the Karlspreis (German) in 1988. In 1998, Kohl was named Honorary Citizen of Europe by the European heads of state or government for his extraordinary work for European integration and cooperation. In 1996 he won the prestigious Prince of Asturias Award in International Cooperation. Kohl and François Mitterrand were the joint recipients of the Karlspreis (German) in 1988. In 1998, Kohl was named Honorary Citizen of Europe by the European heads of state or government for his extraordinary work for European integration and cooperation. In 1996 he won the prestigious Prince of Asturias Award in International Cooperation.François MitterrandKarlspreis Honorary Citizen of EuropeEuropean heads of state or government Prince of Asturias AwardFrançois MitterrandKarlspreis Honorary Citizen of EuropeEuropean heads of state or government Prince of Asturias Award The Maastricht Treaty ( 马斯特里赫特条约, the Treaty on European Union, TEU) was signed on 7 February 1992 in Maastricht, the Netherlands after final negotiations on 9 December 1991 between the members of the European Community and entered into force on 1 November 1993 during the Delors (President, a French economist and politician) Commission. It created the European Union and led to the creation of the euro. The Maastricht Treaty ( 马斯特里赫特条约, the Treaty on European Union, TEU) was signed on 7 February 1992 in Maastricht, the Netherlands after final negotiations on 9 December 1991 between the members of the European Community and entered into force on 1 November 1993 during the Delors (President, a French economist and politician) Commission. It created the European Union and led to the creation of the euro. MaastrichtNetherlandsEuropean CommunityDelors (President, a French economist and politician) CommissionEuropean Unioneuro MaastrichtNetherlandsEuropean CommunityDelors (President, a French economist and politician) CommissionEuropean Unioneuro

Section Three Concrete Positions of Christian Democracy I. Political positions: A combination of individualism, communitarianism incorporating Neo-conservative, Neo-liberal, New Liberal, welfare state and socialist policies in a philanthropic perspective although Popes oppose liberation theology, termed by some as Christian socialism. I. Political positions: A combination of individualism, communitarianism incorporating Neo-conservative, Neo-liberal, New Liberal, welfare state and socialist policies in a philanthropic perspective although Popes oppose liberation theology, termed by some as Christian socialism. II. Economic positions: The social market economy is the main economic model used in West Germany after World War II. It is based on the political philosophy of Ordoliberalism from the Freiburg School （弗莱堡）. Ordoliberal ideas were most prominently developed in the academic journal ORDO and implemented in practice by Ludwig Erhard, Minister of Economics under Konrad Adenauer's chancellorship (from 1949 to 1963). II. Economic positions: The social market economy is the main economic model used in West Germany after World War II. It is based on the political philosophy of Ordoliberalism from the Freiburg School （弗莱堡）. Ordoliberal ideas were most prominently developed in the academic journal ORDO and implemented in practice by Ludwig Erhard, Minister of Economics under Konrad Adenauer's chancellorship (from 1949 to 1963).OrdoliberalismFreiburg SchoolORDOLudwig ErhardKonrad AdenauerOrdoliberalismFreiburg SchoolORDOLudwig ErhardKonrad Adenauer Ludwig Wilhelm Erhard (1897–1977) was a German politician (CDU) and Chancellor of West Germany from 1963 until 1966. He is notable for his leading role in German postwar economic reform and economic recovery. Ludwig Wilhelm Erhard (1897–1977) was a German politician (CDU) and Chancellor of West Germany from 1963 until 1966. He is notable for his leading role in German postwar economic reform and economic recovery.GermanCDUChancellorWest GermanyGermanCDUChancellorWest Germany

The social market economy seeks a market economic system rejecting both socialism and laissez-faire capitalism, combining private enterprise with measures of government regulation attempt to establish fair competition, low inflation, low levels of unemployment, a standard of working conditions, and social welfare. Erhard once told Friedrich Hayek that the free market economy did not need to be made social but was social in its origin. In a social market economy, collective bargaining is often done on a national level not between one corporation and one union, but national employers’ organizations and national trade unions. The social market economy seeks a market economic system rejecting both socialism and laissez-faire capitalism, combining private enterprise with measures of government regulation attempt to establish fair competition, low inflation, low levels of unemployment, a standard of working conditions, and social welfare. Erhard once told Friedrich Hayek that the free market economy did not need to be made social but was social in its origin. In a social market economy, collective bargaining is often done on a national level not between one corporation and one union, but national employers’ organizations and national trade unions.socialismlaissez-fairecapitalismsocial welfare collective bargainingsocialismlaissez-fairecapitalismsocial welfare collective bargaining At first controversial, the model became increasingly popular in West Germany and Austria, since in both states economic success was identified with it. From the 1960s, the social market economy was the main economic model in mainland Western Europe, pursued by administrations of both the centre-right and the centre-left. Southern European states preferred large-scale public services, high salary growth rates and a low unemployment rate over low inflation, low national debt, low public expenditure and other economic health policies. The term “Social market economy” is still the common economic basis of most political parties in Germany and a commitment to some form of social market economy was present in the European Union Constitution. At first controversial, the model became increasingly popular in West Germany and Austria, since in both states economic success was identified with it. From the 1960s, the social market economy was the main economic model in mainland Western Europe, pursued by administrations of both the centre-right and the centre-left. Southern European states preferred large-scale public services, high salary growth rates and a low unemployment rate over low inflation, low national debt, low public expenditure and other economic health policies. The term “Social market economy” is still the common economic basis of most political parties in Germany and a commitment to some form of social market economy was present in the European Union Constitution.centre-rightcentre-leftpublic servicesEuropean Union Constitutioncentre-rightcentre-leftpublic servicesEuropean Union Constitution

Art. I-3 of the European Constitution: The Union shall work for the sustainable development of Europe based on balanced economic growth and price stability, a highly competitive social market economy, aiming at full employment and social progress, and a high level of protection and improvement of the quality of the environment. Art. I-3 of the European Constitution: The Union shall work for the sustainable development of Europe based on balanced economic growth and price stability, a highly competitive social market economy, aiming at full employment and social progress, and a high level of protection and improvement of the quality of the environment. The Freiburg School is a school of economic thought founded in the 1930s at the University of Freiburg. The Freiburg School is a school of economic thought founded in the 1930s at the University of Freiburg. Ordoliberalism is a school of liberalism that emphasizes the need for the state to ensure that the free market produces results close to its theoretical potential (see allocative efficiency). The theory was developed by some German economists and legal scholars, and from about 1930-1950. The term was coined in 1950 by Hero Moeller referring to the academic journal ORDO. Ordoliberalism is a school of liberalism that emphasizes the need for the state to ensure that the free market produces results close to its theoretical potential (see allocative efficiency). The theory was developed by some German economists and legal scholars, and from about 1930-1950. The term was coined in 1950 by Hero Moeller referring to the academic journal ORDO.liberalismfree marketallocative efficiencyORDOliberalismfree marketallocative efficiencyORDO Stephen Padgett: “A central tenet of ordo-liberalism is a clearly defined division of labor in economic management, with specific responsibilities assigned to particular institutions. Monetary policy should be the responsibility of a central bank committed to monetary stability and low inflation, and insulated from political pressure by independent status. Fiscal policy—balancing tax revenue against government expenditure—is the domain of the government, whilst macro-economic policy is the preserve of employers and trade unions.” Stephen Padgett: “A central tenet of ordo-liberalism is a clearly defined division of labor in economic management, with specific responsibilities assigned to particular institutions. Monetary policy should be the responsibility of a central bank committed to monetary stability and low inflation, and insulated from political pressure by independent status. Fiscal policy—balancing tax revenue against government expenditure—is the domain of the government, whilst macro-economic policy is the preserve of employers and trade unions.”employerstrade unionsemployerstrade unions

The state should form an economical order instead of directing economical processes. Ordoliberalism is considered to be “liberal conservatism,” against capitalism. The state should form an economical order instead of directing economical processes. Ordoliberalism is considered to be “liberal conservatism,” against capitalism.capitalism III. Social positions: 1. Insistence on social equity and justice, individual dignity and rights. III. Social positions: 1. Insistence on social equity and justice, individual dignity and rights. 2. Preference to “natural social structure”, intermediate associations. 2. Preference to “natural social structure”, intermediate associations. 3. Emphasis on stable family, especially the nuclear family. 3. Emphasis on stable family, especially the nuclear family. 4. Insistence on traditional ethics against divorce, abortion, homosexuality, incest, promiscuity and euthanasia (mercy-killing). 4. Insistence on traditional ethics against divorce, abortion, homosexuality, incest, promiscuity and euthanasia (mercy-killing). Karl Barth ( 巴特 ) Dominique Lacordaire ( 拉科代尔 ) Romolo Murri ( 穆里 ), Luigi Sturzo( 斯图尔佐 ), a Swiss Christian thinker French Roman Catholic preacher a leader of Italian an Italian Catholic Catholic Democrats priest and politician Catholic Democrats priest and politician

Section Four Comparative Analysis on Christian Democracy I. Approximate distribution of Christian sects: Roman Catholic majority countries: Italy, Poland, Spain, France, Hungary, Ireland, Luxemburg, Austria, Brazil, Mexico, Burundi, Monaco, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Portugal, Slovakia, Venezuela, Honduras, Scotland, England (60%), US (55%). I. Approximate distribution of Christian sects: Roman Catholic majority countries: Italy, Poland, Spain, France, Hungary, Ireland, Luxemburg, Austria, Brazil, Mexico, Burundi, Monaco, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Portugal, Slovakia, Venezuela, Honduras, Scotland, England (60%), US (55%). Catholic and Protestant: Canada, Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland. Catholic and Protestant: Canada, Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland. Protestant majority: Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland. Protestant majority: Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland. Orthodox majority: Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 黑塞哥维那 ), Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia ( 格鲁吉亚 ), Greece, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro ( 黑山 ), Romania, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine. Orthodox majority: Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 黑塞哥维那 ), Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia ( 格鲁吉亚 ), Greece, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro ( 黑山 ), Romania, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine. Low countries: Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg. Low countries: Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg. II. Concrete situation of Christian democracy in representative countries: 1. Italy: Christian Democracy (1943-1994), founded as the ideal successor of the Italian People's Party (1919–1926), was a catch-all party comprising both right-wing and left-wing factions, dominated the Politics of Italy for almost 50 years from 1944 until its demise amid a welter of corruption allegations in 1992–1994. It was succeeded by several parties, including the Italian People's Party, the Christian Democratic Centre, the United Christian Democrats and the current Union of Christian and Centre Democrats. Most former Christian Democrats are now affiliated to the centre-right The People of Freedom and the centre-left Democratic Party. II. Concrete situation of Christian democracy in representative countries: 1. Italy: Christian Democracy (1943-1994), founded as the ideal successor of the Italian People's Party (1919–1926), was a catch-all party comprising both right-wing and left-wing factions, dominated the Politics of Italy for almost 50 years from 1944 until its demise amid a welter of corruption allegations in 1992–1994. It was succeeded by several parties, including the Italian People's Party, the Christian Democratic Centre, the United Christian Democrats and the current Union of Christian and Centre Democrats. Most former Christian Democrats are now affiliated to the centre-right The People of Freedom and the centre-left Democratic Party.catch-all partyItalian People's PartyChristian Democratic CentreUnited Christian DemocratsUnion of Christian and Centre DemocratsThe People of FreedomDemocratic Partycatch-all partyItalian People's PartyChristian Democratic CentreUnited Christian DemocratsUnion of Christian and Centre DemocratsThe People of FreedomDemocratic Party

Christian Democracy (1997-) is a minor Christian democratic and strongly social-conservative Italian political party. The party proposed itself as the core of a refoundation of the original Christian Democracy and to effect the reunification of all the various Christian- democratic parties in Italy. It was once part of the Union centre-left coalition, but then distanced itself from it promoting an autonomous path and is now a minor ally of The People of Freedom. Christian Democracy (1997-) is a minor Christian democratic and strongly social-conservative Italian political party. The party proposed itself as the core of a refoundation of the original Christian Democracy and to effect the reunification of all the various Christian- democratic parties in Italy. It was once part of the Union centre-left coalition, but then distanced itself from it promoting an autonomous path and is now a minor ally of The People of Freedom.Christian DemocracyThe People of FreedomChristian DemocracyThe People of Freedom Party of Christian Democracy (2004-), is a minor Christian- democratic Italian political party. It was founded in July 2004 as a split from the Christian Democracy. For 2007 local elections the party formed an alliance with the Christian Democracy for the Autonomies, while in the 2008 general election it was part of the Union of the Centre alliance. Party of Christian Democracy (2004-), is a minor Christian- democratic Italian political party. It was founded in July 2004 as a split from the Christian Democracy. For 2007 local elections the party formed an alliance with the Christian Democracy for the Autonomies, while in the 2008 general election it was part of the Union of the Centre alliance.Christian DemocracyChristian Democracy for the Autonomies2008 general electionUnion of the CentreChristian DemocracyChristian Democracy for the Autonomies2008 general electionUnion of the Centre Christian Democracy for the Autonomies was founded on 25 October 2004 by a split from the Union of Christian and Centre Democrats (UDC). The party was part of the House of Freedoms coalition since its foundation. The party was part in the 2006 general election on a joint-list with the New Italian Socialist Party (NPSI). The list gained 0.7% of the votes. Christian Democracy for the Autonomies was founded on 25 October 2004 by a split from the Union of Christian and Centre Democrats (UDC). The party was part of the House of Freedoms coalition since its foundation. The party was part in the 2006 general election on a joint-list with the New Italian Socialist Party (NPSI). The list gained 0.7% of the votes.Union of Christian and Centre DemocratsHouse of Freedoms2006 general electionNew Italian Socialist PartyUnion of Christian and Centre DemocratsHouse of Freedoms2006 general electionNew Italian Socialist Party

Belgium: Christian Democratic and Flemish (CD&V) is formerly called Christian People‘s Party. It is a centre-right Flemish ( 佛兰德人 ) party committed to Christian democracy, with historic ties to both labor unionism and corporative organization. As of the 2007 elections, it forms the largest political formation in Belgium. Currently, CD&V is a member of the Van Rompuy I Government, with CD&V leader Herman Van Rompuy the current Prime Minister of Belgium. Belgium: Christian Democratic and Flemish (CD&V) is formerly called Christian People‘s Party. It is a centre-right Flemish ( 佛兰德人 ) party committed to Christian democracy, with historic ties to both labor unionism and corporative organization. As of the 2007 elections, it forms the largest political formation in Belgium. Currently, CD&V is a member of the Van Rompuy I Government, with CD&V leader Herman Van Rompuy the current Prime Minister of Belgium.Van Rompuy I GovernmentHerman Van RompuyVan Rompuy I GovernmentHerman Van Rompuy Germany: Christian Democratic Union of Germany led by Angela Merkel, is non-denominational, and emphasizes the “Christian understanding of humans and their responsibility toward God.” CDU recruits any confessions and non- confessional people. The CDU’s policies encompass derivatives from Political Catholicism and Catholic social teaching, political protestantism, as well as neoliberalism, fiscal conservatism and national conservatism. The CDU was the first proponent of the social market economy. CDU commits itself to European integration and a strong relation with the USA. Domestically, the CDU emphasizes curtailing red tape and the preservation of cultural traditions, supports stronger punishments of crimes. In terms of immigrants, the CDU supports initiatives to integrate immigrants through language courses, and aims to further control immigration. Germany: Christian Democratic Union of Germany led by Angela Merkel, is non-denominational, and emphasizes the “Christian understanding of humans and their responsibility toward God.” CDU recruits any confessions and non- confessional people. The CDU’s policies encompass derivatives from Political Catholicism and Catholic social teaching, political protestantism, as well as neoliberalism, fiscal conservatism and national conservatism. The CDU was the first proponent of the social market economy. CDU commits itself to European integration and a strong relation with the USA. Domestically, the CDU emphasizes curtailing red tape and the preservation of cultural traditions, supports stronger punishments of crimes. In terms of immigrants, the CDU supports initiatives to integrate immigrants through language courses, and aims to further control immigration.Angela MerkelPolitical CatholicismCatholic social teachingprotestantism neoliberalismfiscal conservatismnational conservatismsocial market economyEuropean integrationUSAred tapeAngela MerkelPolitical CatholicismCatholic social teachingprotestantism neoliberalismfiscal conservatismnational conservatismsocial market economyEuropean integrationUSAred tape Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU) is a Christian democratic and conservative political party, founded as a continuation of the Weimar-era Catholic Bavarian People’s Party. It operates only in the state of Bavaria, while its sister party, CDU, operates in the other 15 states. Their difference is that the CSU is more conservative in domestic and social issues but more progressive in fiscal issues. At the federal level, it forms a faction with the CDU. The CDU/CSU faction governed in a grand coalition with the Social Democratic Party of Germany faction on the federal level until the German federal election of 2009, after which the CDU/CSU announced its intentions to rule in coalition with the Free Democratic Party. Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU) is a Christian democratic and conservative political party, founded as a continuation of the Weimar-era Catholic Bavarian People’s Party. It operates only in the state of Bavaria, while its sister party, CDU, operates in the other 15 states. Their difference is that the CSU is more conservative in domestic and social issues but more progressive in fiscal issues. At the federal level, it forms a faction with the CDU. The CDU/CSU faction governed in a grand coalition with the Social Democratic Party of Germany faction on the federal level until the German federal election of 2009, after which the CDU/CSU announced its intentions to rule in coalition with the Free Democratic Party. conservativeWeimarBavariaSocial Democratic Party of GermanyFree Democratic Party conservativeWeimarBavariaSocial Democratic Party of GermanyFree Democratic Party

Netherlands: Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) is a center-right Dutch Christian democratic political party, currently the biggest coalition partner in the fourth Balkenende cabinet. History of the party can be traced back to 1880 when Catholic and Protestant parties worked together, and shared a common interest in public funding of religious schools. In 1888 they formed the first Christian- Democratic government. Now the Bible is only seen as a source of inspiration for members of parliament. The party also has Jewish, Muslim and Hindu members of parliament, and it favors the integration of minorities into Dutch culture. Netherlands: Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) is a center-right Dutch Christian democratic political party, currently the biggest coalition partner in the fourth Balkenende cabinet. History of the party can be traced back to 1880 when Catholic and Protestant parties worked together, and shared a common interest in public funding of religious schools. In 1888 they formed the first Christian- Democratic government. Now the Bible is only seen as a source of inspiration for members of parliament. The party also has Jewish, Muslim and Hindu members of parliament, and it favors the integration of minorities into Dutch culture. fourth Balkenende cabinet CatholicProtestant public funding of religious schoolsJewishMuslimHindu fourth Balkenende cabinet CatholicProtestant public funding of religious schoolsJewishMuslimHindu The party has four main ideals: shared responsibility, stewardship, justice and solidarity. Shared responsibility means that the state, the market, and social institutions, like churches and unions should work together. This is called sphere sovereignty, a core concept of Protestant political philosophy. Responsibility should be shared between local, provincial, national and European government. This is called subsidiarity in Catholic political thought. With stewardship the Christian- democrats refer to the way we should treat our planet: the Earth is a gift from God. Therefore we should try to preserve our environment. The party has four main ideals: shared responsibility, stewardship, justice and solidarity. Shared responsibility means that the state, the market, and social institutions, like churches and unions should work together. This is called sphere sovereignty, a core concept of Protestant political philosophy. Responsibility should be shared between local, provincial, national and European government. This is called subsidiarity in Catholic political thought. With stewardship the Christian- democrats refer to the way we should treat our planet: the Earth is a gift from God. Therefore we should try to preserve our environment.statemarketsocial institutionschurchesunionssphere sovereigntylocalprovincialEuropean governmentsubsidiaritystatemarketsocial institutionschurchesunionssphere sovereigntylocalprovincialEuropean governmentsubsidiarity The state deficit should be repaid in one generation, to cope with the effects of the aging population. The toleration of soft drugs should come to an end, and prostitution, abortion and euthanasia should be more limited. The party is a staunch proponent of European integration. The party wants to make schools and hospitals more responsible for their own policy, instead of being regulated by the government. The state deficit should be repaid in one generation, to cope with the effects of the aging population. The toleration of soft drugs should come to an end, and prostitution, abortion and euthanasia should be more limited. The party is a staunch proponent of European integration. The party wants to make schools and hospitals more responsible for their own policy, instead of being regulated by the government.aging populationsoft drugs prostitutionabortioneuthanasiaEuropean integrationaging populationsoft drugs prostitutionabortioneuthanasiaEuropean integration Christian Union is a Dutch Christian democratic party of Christian social inspiration. It combines a conservative point of view on ethical issues, with more centre left ideas on economic, migration, social and environmental issues. After doubling its seats in the 2006 elections it became the smallest member of the newly- formed fourth Balkenende cabinet. Christian Union is a Dutch Christian democratic party of Christian social inspiration. It combines a conservative point of view on ethical issues, with more centre left ideas on economic, migration, social and environmental issues. After doubling its seats in the 2006 elections it became the smallest member of the newly- formed fourth Balkenende cabinet.DutchChristian democraticfourth Balkenende cabinetDutchChristian democraticfourth Balkenende cabinet

France: In 1894, students founded Le Sillon (The Furrow), representing the progressive wing of the French Catholicism. But it was dissolved in 1910 by an order of the papacy. At the beginning of the 20th century, many organizations appeared and participated actively in the anti-Nazi underground Resistance during the Second World War. France: In 1894, students founded Le Sillon (The Furrow), representing the progressive wing of the French Catholicism. But it was dissolved in 1910 by an order of the papacy. At the beginning of the 20th century, many organizations appeared and participated actively in the anti-Nazi underground Resistance during the Second World War. Popular Republican Movement (MRP) was a French Christian democratic party of the Fourth Republic. At the November 1945 legislative election, the MRP was second (23.9%) after the French Communist Party. Popular Republican Movement (MRP) was a French Christian democratic party of the Fourth Republic. At the November 1945 legislative election, the MRP was second (23.9%) after the French Communist Party.Christian democraticpartyFourth RepublicNovember 1945 legislative electionFrench Communist PartyChristian democraticpartyFourth RepublicNovember 1945 legislative electionFrench Communist Party Christian Democratic Party is a conservative Christian-democratic party in France. The party was known as the Forum of Social Republicans between 2001 and June 2009. The FRS was established in March 2001 as a social conservative faction within the Christian democratic Union for French Democracy (UDF) and emerged as an independent party in December of the same year. In 2005, the FRS called for a NO vote in the referendum over the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe. Christian Democratic Party is a conservative Christian-democratic party in France. The party was known as the Forum of Social Republicans between 2001 and June 2009. The FRS was established in March 2001 as a social conservative faction within the Christian democratic Union for French Democracy (UDF) and emerged as an independent party in December of the same year. In 2005, the FRS called for a NO vote in the referendum over the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe.Christian democraticUnion for French DemocracyTreaty establishing a Constitution for EuropeChristian democraticUnion for French DemocracyTreaty establishing a Constitution for Europe The PCD is a Christian democratic social conservative party, opposed to gay marriage, abortion and euthanasia. It is an associate party of the Union for a Popular Movement and is a member of the Liaison Committee for the Presidential Majority. The PCD is a Christian democratic social conservative party, opposed to gay marriage, abortion and euthanasia. It is an associate party of the Union for a Popular Movement and is a member of the Liaison Committee for the Presidential Majority.gay marriageabortioneuthanasiaUnion for a Popular MovementLiaison Committee for the Presidential Majoritygay marriageabortioneuthanasiaUnion for a Popular MovementLiaison Committee for the Presidential Majority Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) was a French Christian-democratic party. It was founded on May 23, 1976 by the merger of the Democratic Centre, Centre, Democracy and Progress. On February 1, 1978, the CDS was a founding member of the Union for French Democracy (UDF), alongside the Republican Party and the Radical Party. It was the centrist and Christian democratic component of the UDF. On November 25, 1995, CDS merged with the Social Democratic Party to form the Democratic Force, founding component of the New UDF on September 16, 1998. Democratic and Social Centre (CDS) was a French Christian-democratic party. It was founded on May 23, 1976 by the merger of the Democratic Centre, Centre, Democracy and Progress. On February 1, 1978, the CDS was a founding member of the Union for French Democracy (UDF), alongside the Republican Party and the Radical Party. It was the centrist and Christian democratic component of the UDF. On November 25, 1995, CDS merged with the Social Democratic Party to form the Democratic Force, founding component of the New UDF on September 16, 1998.FrenchChristian-democraticUnion for French DemocracySocial Democratic Party Democratic ForceFrenchChristian-democraticUnion for French DemocracySocial Democratic Party Democratic Force

III. Rationality of Christian democracy: 1. Freedom of speech and freedom of belief of western liberal democracy provide political environment for Christian democracy to emerge and develop; 2. Christian groups protect their own interests by participating in politics; 3. Christian democrats solidify their political basis by identifying themselves with Christian voters via protecting basic Christian faith; 4. Christian democrats expand their political support by partially resorting to Neo-conservatism and New Liberalism, both of which can be based on Christian faith; 5. Christian democrats are flexible political partisans, separated from churches and appealing to all social groups but still associated with Christianity spiritually. III. Rationality of Christian democracy: 1. Freedom of speech and freedom of belief of western liberal democracy provide political environment for Christian democracy to emerge and develop; 2. Christian groups protect their own interests by participating in politics; 3. Christian democrats solidify their political basis by identifying themselves with Christian voters via protecting basic Christian faith; 4. Christian democrats expand their political support by partially resorting to Neo-conservatism and New Liberalism, both of which can be based on Christian faith; 5. Christian democrats are flexible political partisans, separated from churches and appealing to all social groups but still associated with Christianity spiritually. IV. The political strategy of Christian democracy in the post-cold war period: 1. More flexible catch-all political alignment; 2. Third-way policy; 3. Broad political perspectives of social equity, justice, integration, pluralism, internationalism and social stability in coping with poverty, crime, racial conflict, and terrorism. IV. The political strategy of Christian democracy in the post-cold war period: 1. More flexible catch-all political alignment; 2. Third-way policy; 3. Broad political perspectives of social equity, justice, integration, pluralism, internationalism and social stability in coping with poverty, crime, racial conflict, and terrorism.

Chapter Six Anarchism Lao Tsu Zeno of Citium Diogenes of Cynicism Lao Tsu Zeno of Citium Diogenes of Cynicism and Alexander and Alexander

Introduction: Anarchism is a political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which consider the state, as compulsory government, to be unnecessary, harmful, and/or undesirable, and favors the absence of the state (anarchy). Introduction: Anarchism is a political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which consider the state, as compulsory government, to be unnecessary, harmful, and/or undesirable, and favors the absence of the state (anarchy).stateabsence of the stateanarchystateabsence of the stateanarchy There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive. Different versions of anarchism have been categorized as socialist anarchism and individualist anarchism or similar dual classifications. Anarchism is often considered to be a radical left-wing ideology, and much of anarchist economics and anarchist legal philosophy reflect anti-statist interpretations of communism, collectivism, syndicalism or participatory economics; however, anarchism has for some time included an economic and legal individualist strain, with that strain supporting an anarchist free- market economy and private property. There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive. Different versions of anarchism have been categorized as socialist anarchism and individualist anarchism or similar dual classifications. Anarchism is often considered to be a radical left-wing ideology, and much of anarchist economics and anarchist legal philosophy reflect anti-statist interpretations of communism, collectivism, syndicalism or participatory economics; however, anarchism has for some time included an economic and legal individualist strain, with that strain supporting an anarchist free- market economy and private property.socialist anarchismindividualist anarchism radical left-winganarchist economics anarchist legal philosophyanti-statist communismcollectivismsyndicalismparticipatory economicsindividualistanarchist free- market economysocialist anarchismindividualist anarchism radical left-winganarchist economics anarchist legal philosophyanti-statist communismcollectivismsyndicalismparticipatory economicsindividualistanarchist free- market economy Others, such as panarchists and anarchists without adjectives, neither advocate nor object to any particular form of organization as long as it is not compulsory. Some anarchist schools of thought differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Some anarchists fundamentally oppose all forms of aggression, supporting self-defense or non-violence, while others have supported the use of some coercive measures, including violent revolution and terrorism, on the path to anarchy. Others, such as panarchists and anarchists without adjectives, neither advocate nor object to any particular form of organization as long as it is not compulsory. Some anarchist schools of thought differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Some anarchists fundamentally oppose all forms of aggression, supporting self-defense or non-violence, while others have supported the use of some coercive measures, including violent revolution and terrorism, on the path to anarchy.panarchistsanarchists without adjectivesanarchist schools of thoughtindividualismcollectivismpanarchistsanarchists without adjectivesanarchist schools of thoughtindividualismcollectivism

Section One Emergence, Development and Characteristics of Anarchism I. The emergence, development and evolution of anarchism: 1. Ancient and early modern thoughts of anarchism: Some claim anarchist themes can be found in the works of Chinese Taoist sages Laozi and Zhuangzi. Their saying is “Govern by doing nothing”. Similar ideas were proposed by ancient Greek Diogenes and the Cynics, and their contemporary Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, who said that the wise should not give up their liberty to the state. Based on the moral ideas of the Cynics, Stoicism laid great emphasis on the goodness and peace of mind which would arise from living a life of virtue in accordance with nature. Later movements – such as the Free Spirit in the Middle Ages, the Anabaptists ( 再洗礼派 ), the Diggers and the Levellers — have also expounded ideas that have been interpreted as anarchist. I. The emergence, development and evolution of anarchism: 1. Ancient and early modern thoughts of anarchism: Some claim anarchist themes can be found in the works of Chinese Taoist sages Laozi and Zhuangzi. Their saying is “Govern by doing nothing”. Similar ideas were proposed by ancient Greek Diogenes and the Cynics, and their contemporary Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, who said that the wise should not give up their liberty to the state. Based on the moral ideas of the Cynics, Stoicism laid great emphasis on the goodness and peace of mind which would arise from living a life of virtue in accordance with nature. Later movements – such as the Free Spirit in the Middle Ages, the Anabaptists ( 再洗礼派 ), the Diggers and the Levellers — have also expounded ideas that have been interpreted as anarchist.Taoist LaoziZhuangzi CynicsZeno of Citium StoicismlibertyCynicsgoodnesspeace of mindvirtuenatureFree SpiritMiddle AgesAnabaptistsDiggersLevellersTaoist LaoziZhuangzi CynicsZeno of Citium StoicismlibertyCynicsgoodnesspeace of mindvirtuenatureFree SpiritMiddle AgesAnabaptistsDiggersLevellers 2. Ideological sources of anarchism: libertarianism, individualism, socialism and communism. 2. Ideological sources of anarchism: libertarianism, individualism, socialism and communism. 3. Historical roots of anarchism: class polarization as a result of the industrial revolution in the late 1700s and early 1800s. 3. Historical roots of anarchism: class polarization as a result of the industrial revolution in the late 1700s and early 1800s.

4. Modern anarchism (first half of the 1800s – the early 1900s): William Godwin （ 1756 -1836), was an English journalist, political philosopher and novelist. He is considered one of the first exponents of utilitarianism, and one of the first modern proponents of anarchism. Godwin is most famous for two books, one of which is An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, an attack on political institutions. His first wife was the pioneering feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft. 4. Modern anarchism (first half of the 1800s – the early 1900s): William Godwin （ 1756 -1836), was an English journalist, political philosopher and novelist. He is considered one of the first exponents of utilitarianism, and one of the first modern proponents of anarchism. Godwin is most famous for two books, one of which is An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, an attack on political institutions. His first wife was the pioneering feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft.An Enquiry Concerning Political JusticeMary WollstonecraftAn Enquiry Concerning Political JusticeMary Wollstonecraft The first part of the book was largely a recap of Edmund Burke’s A Vindication of Natural Society - an anarchist critique of the state. The rest of the book is Godwin’s positive vision of how an anarchist (minarchist) society might work. The first part of the book was largely a recap of Edmund Burke’s A Vindication of Natural Society - an anarchist critique of the state. The rest of the book is Godwin’s positive vision of how an anarchist (minarchist) society might work.Edmund Burke A Vindication of Natural SocietyanarchiststateEdmund Burke A Vindication of Natural Societyanarchiststate Godwin had been “satisfied that monarchy was a species of government unavoidably corrupt,” and he gradually came to consider that “government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of original mind,” demonstrating anti-statist beliefs. He considered that “our virtues and our vices may be traced to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated from the world.” All control of man by man was more or less intolerable, and the day would come when each man, doing what seems right in his own eyes, would also be doing what is in fact best for the community, because all will be guided by principles of pure reason. Godwin had been “satisfied that monarchy was a species of government unavoidably corrupt,” and he gradually came to consider that “government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of original mind,” demonstrating anti-statist beliefs. He considered that “our virtues and our vices may be traced to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated from the world.” All control of man by man was more or less intolerable, and the day would come when each man, doing what seems right in his own eyes, would also be doing what is in fact best for the community, because all will be guided by principles of pure reason.anti-statist

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809 - 1865) was a French politician, mutualist philosopher and socialist. He was a member of the French Parliament, and he was the first to call himself an anarchist. His best- known assertion is that Property is Theft!, contained in his first major work, What is Property? Marx met with Proudhon and responded to his The Philosophy of Poverty with the provocatively titled The Poverty of Philosophy. Proudhon favored workers’ associations or co-operatives, as well as individual worker/peasant ownership, and revolution in a peaceful manner. He unsuccessfully tried to create a national bank, to be funded by what became an abortive attempt at an income tax on capitalists and stockholders. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809 - 1865) was a French politician, mutualist philosopher and socialist. He was a member of the French Parliament, and he was the first to call himself an anarchist. His best- known assertion is that Property is Theft!, contained in his first major work, What is Property? Marx met with Proudhon and responded to his The Philosophy of Poverty with the provocatively titled The Poverty of Philosophy. Proudhon favored workers’ associations or co-operatives, as well as individual worker/peasant ownership, and revolution in a peaceful manner. He unsuccessfully tried to create a national bank, to be funded by what became an abortive attempt at an income tax on capitalists and stockholders.anarchistProperty is Theft!What is Property? The Philosophy of PovertyThe Poverty of Philosophy national bankcapitalistsstockholdersanarchistProperty is Theft!What is Property? The Philosophy of PovertyThe Poverty of Philosophy national bankcapitalistsstockholders Max Stirnen (1806 -1856) was a German philosopher, who ranks as one of the literary fathers of nihilism, existentialism, post- modernism and anarchism, especially of individualist anarchism. Stirner’s main work is The Ego and Its Own. He claimed that the state is an illegitimate institution and his thought is often seen as a form of individualist anarchism. Stirner mocks revolution in the traditional sense as tacitly statist. His method of self-liberation is opposed to faith or belief; life is free from “dogmatic presuppositions” or any “fixed standpoint”. It is not merely Christian dogma but also European atheist ideologies that are condemned as crypto-Christian. The denial of absolute truth is rooted in Stirner’s the “nothingness” of the self. Max Stirnen (1806 -1856) was a German philosopher, who ranks as one of the literary fathers of nihilism, existentialism, post- modernism and anarchism, especially of individualist anarchism. Stirner’s main work is The Ego and Its Own. He claimed that the state is an illegitimate institution and his thought is often seen as a form of individualist anarchism. Stirner mocks revolution in the traditional sense as tacitly statist. His method of self-liberation is opposed to faith or belief; life is free from “dogmatic presuppositions” or any “fixed standpoint”. It is not merely Christian dogma but also European atheist ideologies that are condemned as crypto-Christian. The denial of absolute truth is rooted in Stirner’s the “nothingness” of the self.nihilismexistentialismpost- modernismanarchismindividualist anarchismThe Ego and Its OwnstatistChristiandogmaEuropean atheistnihilismexistentialismpost- modernismanarchismindividualist anarchismThe Ego and Its OwnstatistChristiandogmaEuropean atheist

Mikhail Bakunin (1814 - 1876) was a well-known Russian revolutionary and theorist of collectivist anarchism. Born in the Russian Empire to a family of Russian nobles, Bakunin spent his youth as a junior officer, studied philosophy and frequented radical circles in Moscow. In 1849 he was apprehended in Dresden for his participation in the Czech rebellion of 1848. He was then turned over to Russia where he was imprisoned and was exiled to a work camp in Siberia in 1867. He was able to escape. In 1870, he was involved in the insurrection in Lyon. In 1868, Bakunin joined the International Working Men’s Association. The 1872 Congress was dominated by a fight between a faction around Marx and a faction around Bakunin. Bakunin’s faction lost the vote, and were expelled for supposedly maintaining a secret organization within the international. H wrote Statism and Anarchy and God and the State. Mikhail Bakunin (1814 - 1876) was a well-known Russian revolutionary and theorist of collectivist anarchism. Born in the Russian Empire to a family of Russian nobles, Bakunin spent his youth as a junior officer, studied philosophy and frequented radical circles in Moscow. In 1849 he was apprehended in Dresden for his participation in the Czech rebellion of 1848. He was then turned over to Russia where he was imprisoned and was exiled to a work camp in Siberia in 1867. He was able to escape. In 1870, he was involved in the insurrection in Lyon. In 1868, Bakunin joined the International Working Men’s Association. The 1872 Congress was dominated by a fight between a faction around Marx and a faction around Bakunin. Bakunin’s faction lost the vote, and were expelled for supposedly maintaining a secret organization within the international. H wrote Statism and Anarchy and God and the State.Russian revolutionarycollectivist anarchismRussiannoblesCzech rebellion of 1848exiled SiberiaLyonInternational Working Men’s Association Statism and AnarchyGod and the StateRussian revolutionarycollectivist anarchismRussiannoblesCzech rebellion of 1848exiled SiberiaLyonInternational Working Men’s Association Statism and AnarchyGod and the State Bakunin’s political beliefs rejected governing systems in every name and shape, from the idea of God downwards, and every form of external authority. Bakunin’s political beliefs were based on several interrelated concepts: (1) liberty; (2) socialism; (3) federalism; (4) anti-theism; and (5) materialism. He also developed a critique of Marxism, predicting that if the Marxists were successful in seizing power, they would create a party dictatorship “all the more dangerous because it appears as a sham expression of the people’s will.” Bakunin’s political beliefs rejected governing systems in every name and shape, from the idea of God downwards, and every form of external authority. Bakunin’s political beliefs were based on several interrelated concepts: (1) liberty; (2) socialism; (3) federalism; (4) anti-theism; and (5) materialism. He also developed a critique of Marxism, predicting that if the Marxists were successful in seizing power, they would create a party dictatorship “all the more dangerous because it appears as a sham expression of the people’s will.”libertysocialismfederalism anti-theismmaterialismlibertysocialismfederalism anti-theismmaterialism

Peter Kropotkin (1842 - 1921) was a geographer, a zoologist, and one of Russia’s foremost anarchists. Kropotkin advocated a communist society free from central government. Because of his title of prince, he was known by some as “the Anarchist Prince”. Peter Kropotkin (1842 - 1921) was a geographer, a zoologist, and one of Russia’s foremost anarchists. Kropotkin advocated a communist society free from central government. Because of his title of prince, he was known by some as “the Anarchist Prince”.geographerzoologistRussiaanarchists communistgovernmentprincegeographerzoologistRussiaanarchists communistgovernmentprince He visited Switzerland in 1872 and became a member of the International Workingmen's Association at Geneva. On returning to Russia, he took an active part in spreading revolutionary propaganda. He escaped from the prison and went to England and Switzerland. During the 1880s, he was expelled from Switzerland and then arrested in France. Finally he settled in London and wrote many books, pamphlets and articles, the most prominent being The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops, and his principal scientific offering, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, which provided an alternative view on animal and human survival, beyond the claims of ‘Survival of the Fittest’. He visited Switzerland in 1872 and became a member of the International Workingmen's Association at Geneva. On returning to Russia, he took an active part in spreading revolutionary propaganda. He escaped from the prison and went to England and Switzerland. During the 1880s, he was expelled from Switzerland and then arrested in France. Finally he settled in London and wrote many books, pamphlets and articles, the most prominent being The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops, and his principal scientific offering, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, which provided an alternative view on animal and human survival, beyond the claims of ‘Survival of the Fittest’.Switzerland International Workingmen's AssociationGenevaThe Conquest of BreadFields, Factories and Workshops scientificMutual Aid: A Factor of EvolutionSwitzerland International Workingmen's AssociationGenevaThe Conquest of BreadFields, Factories and Workshops scientificMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution Errico Malatesta ( 马拉泰斯塔,1853 – 1932) was an Italian anarcho-communist, and an insurrectionary anarchist early in his life. He spent much of his life exiled from his homeland and in total spent more than ten years in prison. He wrote and edited a number of radical newspapers and was also a friend of Mikhail Bakunin. He believed that the anarchist revolution was coming soon, and advocated violence as a “necessary” part of the emancipation of the working class. Errico Malatesta ( 马拉泰斯塔,1853 – 1932) was an Italian anarcho-communist, and an insurrectionary anarchist early in his life. He spent much of his life exiled from his homeland and in total spent more than ten years in prison. He wrote and edited a number of radical newspapers and was also a friend of Mikhail Bakunin. He believed that the anarchist revolution was coming soon, and advocated violence as a “necessary” part of the emancipation of the working class.Italian anarcho-communistinsurrectionary anarchistMikhail BakuninItalian anarcho-communistinsurrectionary anarchistMikhail Bakunin

William Morris ( 莫里斯,1834 – 1896) was an English architect, furniture and textile designer, artist, writer, socialist and Marxist. He was an important figure in the emergence of socialism in Britain, founding the Socialist League in 1884, but breaking with the movement over goals and methods by the end of that decade. He played a decisive role in the Socialist League’s turning to anarchism. William Morris ( 莫里斯,1834 – 1896) was an English architect, furniture and textile designer, artist, writer, socialist and Marxist. He was an important figure in the emergence of socialism in Britain, founding the Socialist League in 1884, but breaking with the movement over goals and methods by the end of that decade. He played a decisive role in the Socialist League’s turning to anarchism.architect furnituretextile designersocialistMarxistsocialismSocialist LeagueSocialist Leaguearchitect furnituretextile designersocialistMarxistsocialismSocialist LeagueSocialist League Emma Goldman ( 戈德曼,1869 – 1940) was an Russian American anarchist who played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America and Europe in the first half of the twentieth century. Goldman was imprisoned several times in the years that followed, for “inciting to riot” and illegally distributing information about birth control. In 1906, Goldman founded the anarchist journal Mother Earth. In 1923, she wrote a book about her experiences, My Disillusionment in Russia. While living in England, Canada, and France, she wrote an autobiography called Living My Life. After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, she traveled to Spain to support the anarchist revolution there. Emma Goldman ( 戈德曼,1869 – 1940) was an Russian American anarchist who played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America and Europe in the first half of the twentieth century. Goldman was imprisoned several times in the years that followed, for “inciting to riot” and illegally distributing information about birth control. In 1906, Goldman founded the anarchist journal Mother Earth. In 1923, she wrote a book about her experiences, My Disillusionment in Russia. While living in England, Canada, and France, she wrote an autobiography called Living My Life. After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, she traveled to Spain to support the anarchist revolution there. anarchistNorth AmericaEuropebirth controlMother EarthMy Disillusionment in RussiaEngland CanadaFranceLiving My LifeSpanish Civil WarSpainanarchist revolution anarchistNorth AmericaEuropebirth controlMother EarthMy Disillusionment in RussiaEngland CanadaFranceLiving My LifeSpanish Civil WarSpainanarchist revolution During her life, Goldman was lionized as a free-thinking “rebel woman” by admirers. Her writing and lectures spanned a wide variety of issues, including prisons, atheism, freedom of speech, militarism, capitalism, marriage, free love, and homosexuality. She developed new ways of incorporating gender politics into anarchism. During her life, Goldman was lionized as a free-thinking “rebel woman” by admirers. Her writing and lectures spanned a wide variety of issues, including prisons, atheism, freedom of speech, militarism, capitalism, marriage, free love, and homosexuality. She developed new ways of incorporating gender politics into anarchism.atheismfreedom of speechmilitarism capitalismmarriagefree lovehomosexualityatheismfreedom of speechmilitarism capitalismmarriagefree lovehomosexuality

“Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations.” “Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations.” 5. Contemporary anarchism: (1) Anarcho-syndicalism in the early 1900s: Syndicalism focuses on the labour movement and is an alternative co-operative economic system. Anarcho-syndicalists view it as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the State with a new society democratically self- managed by workers. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system, regarding it as “wage slavery,” and state or private ownership. Most anarcho-syndicalists have identified as anarcho-communists or anarcho-collectivists. 5. Contemporary anarchism: (1) Anarcho-syndicalism in the early 1900s: Syndicalism focuses on the labour movement and is an alternative co-operative economic system. Anarcho-syndicalists view it as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the State with a new society democratically self- managed by workers. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system, regarding it as “wage slavery,” and state or private ownership. Most anarcho-syndicalists have identified as anarcho-communists or anarcho-collectivists.labour movementco-operative economic system capitalismStatewage slaverylabour movementco-operative economic system capitalismStatewage slavery Georges Eugène Sorel (1847 – 1922) was a French philosopher and theorist of revolutionary syndicalism. His notion of the power of myth in people's lives inspired Marxists and Fascists. Together with his Reflections On Violence (1908), he is most often remembered. (see Chap. 4, Fascism) Georges Eugène Sorel (1847 – 1922) was a French philosopher and theorist of revolutionary syndicalism. His notion of the power of myth in people's lives inspired Marxists and Fascists. Together with his Reflections On Violence (1908), he is most often remembered. (see Chap. 4, Fascism)revolutionarysyndicalismrevolutionarysyndicalism

(2) Temporary decline of anarchism: In the 1920s and 1930s, the conflict between anarchism and the state was eclipsed by the one among liberal democracy, fascism and communism. At the end of World War II, the major political dichotomy became that between capitalism and communism. The philosophical influence of anarchism remained latent. (2) Temporary decline of anarchism: In the 1920s and 1930s, the conflict between anarchism and the state was eclipsed by the one among liberal democracy, fascism and communism. At the end of World War II, the major political dichotomy became that between capitalism and communism. The philosophical influence of anarchism remained latent.liberal democracyfascismcommunismphilosophicalliberal democracyfascismcommunismphilosophical (3) The revival of anarchism after the 1960s: A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred during the 1960s and 1970s. In the UK this was associated with the punk rock movement. In Denmark, the Freetown Christiania was created in downtown Copenhagen. The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of communes and squatter movements. In the 1980s, primitivists proclaimed that civilization would need to be abolished to foster liberty and a just social order. (3) The revival of anarchism after the 1960s: A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred during the 1960s and 1970s. In the UK this was associated with the punk rock movement. In Denmark, the Freetown Christiania was created in downtown Copenhagen. The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of communes and squatter movements. In the 1980s, primitivists proclaimed that civilization would need to be abolished to foster liberty and a just social order.UKDenmark Freetown ChristianiaCopenhagencommunessquatter primitivistscivilizationUKDenmark Freetown ChristianiaCopenhagencommunessquatter primitivistscivilization Since the last third of the 20th century, anarchists have been involved in student protest movements, peace movements, squatter movements, and the anti-globalization movement, among others. Some engage in rioting and vandalism. Others uphold non-violent principles. Since the last third of the 20th century, anarchists have been involved in student protest movements, peace movements, squatter movements, and the anti-globalization movement, among others. Some engage in rioting and vandalism. Others uphold non-violent principles.riotingvandalismnon-violentriotingvandalismnon-violent Many people use cell phones or the internet to form loose communities. Some of these communities have as their purpose the production of information in a non-commoditized or use-value format. Many people use cell phones or the internet to form loose communities. Some of these communities have as their purpose the production of information in a non-commoditized or use-value format.use-value

Gustave de Molinari ( 古斯塔夫 · 德 · 莫利纳里,1819 – 1912) was an economist born in the the Netherlands associated with French laissez-faire liberal economists. He took part in the Free Trade League. In 1849, Molinari published two works: an essay, The Production of Security, and a book, Les Soirées de la Rue Saint-Lazare, describing how a market in justice and protection could advantageously replace the state. Gustave de Molinari ( 古斯塔夫 · 德 · 莫利纳里,1819 – 1912) was an economist born in the the Netherlands associated with French laissez-faire liberal economists. He took part in the Free Trade League. In 1849, Molinari published two works: an essay, The Production of Security, and a book, Les Soirées de la Rue Saint-Lazare, describing how a market in justice and protection could advantageously replace the state.French laissez-faire liberalmarketstateFrench laissez-faire liberalmarketstate Henry Thoreau ( 梭罗,1817 – 1862) was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay, Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government. Thoreau is cited as an individualist anarchist. In Civil Disobedience, said: “That government is best which governs not at all.” Henry Thoreau ( 梭罗,1817 – 1862) was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay, Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government. Thoreau is cited as an individualist anarchist. In Civil Disobedience, said: “That government is best which governs not at all.”WaldenCivil Disobedience resistance to civil governmentindividualist anarchistWaldenCivil Disobedience resistance to civil governmentindividualist anarchist Josiah Warren ( 沃伦,1798-1874) was an American individualist anarchist, inventor, socialist, musician, and author. Some regarded him as the first American anarchist, and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published. His principle is “sovereignty of the individual”. Josiah Warren ( 沃伦,1798-1874) was an American individualist anarchist, inventor, socialist, musician, and author. Some regarded him as the first American anarchist, and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published. His principle is “sovereignty of the individual”.individualist anarchist sovereignty of the individualindividualist anarchist sovereignty of the individual

Benjamin Tucker ( 塔克,1854 – 1939) was a leading proponent of American individualist anarchism, and editor and publisher of the individualist anarchist periodical Liberty. Tucker argued that the poor condition of American workers resulted from four legal monopolies based in authority: the money monopoly, the land monopoly, tariffs, and patents. He said: “interest is theft, Rent Robbery, and Profit Only Another Name for Plunder.” Benjamin Tucker ( 塔克,1854 – 1939) was a leading proponent of American individualist anarchism, and editor and publisher of the individualist anarchist periodical Liberty. Tucker argued that the poor condition of American workers resulted from four legal monopolies based in authority: the money monopoly, the land monopoly, tariffs, and patents. He said: “interest is theft, Rent Robbery, and Profit Only Another Name for Plunder.” Americanindividualist anarchismLibertylegal monopolies Americanindividualist anarchismLibertylegal monopolies Murray Rothbard ( 罗斯巴德,1926 – 1995) was an American intellectual, individualist anarchist, author, and economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern libertarianism and popularized a form of free-market anarchism he termed “anarcho- capitalism”. Building on the Austrian School’s concept of spontaneous order in markets, he labeled the State as nothing but a “gang of thieves writ large”. Rothbard concluded that virtually all services provided by monopoly governments could be provided more efficiently by the private sector (in particular, money production and coinage). He argued that taxation represents coercive theft on a grand scale, and “a compulsory monopoly of force” prohibiting the more efficient voluntary procurement of defense and judicial services from competing suppliers. He considered central banking and fractional reserve banking a form of state-sponsored, legalized financial fraud. Murray Rothbard ( 罗斯巴德,1926 – 1995) was an American intellectual, individualist anarchist, author, and economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern libertarianism and popularized a form of free-market anarchism he termed “anarcho- capitalism”. Building on the Austrian School’s concept of spontaneous order in markets, he labeled the State as nothing but a “gang of thieves writ large”. Rothbard concluded that virtually all services provided by monopoly governments could be provided more efficiently by the private sector (in particular, money production and coinage). He argued that taxation represents coercive theft on a grand scale, and “a compulsory monopoly of force” prohibiting the more efficient voluntary procurement of defense and judicial services from competing suppliers. He considered central banking and fractional reserve banking a form of state-sponsored, legalized financial fraud. intellectualindividualist anarchistauthoreconomist Austrian Schoollibertarianismfree-market anarchismanarcho- capitalism spontaneous ordermonopolygovernmentsmoney production coinagetaxationcentral banking intellectualindividualist anarchistauthoreconomist Austrian Schoollibertarianismfree-market anarchismanarcho- capitalism spontaneous ordermonopolygovernmentsmoney production coinagetaxationcentral banking

George Woodcock ( 伍德科克,1912 - 1995) was a prolific Canadian writer of poetry, essays, criticism, biographies and historical works. Elsewhere in the world, he is probably best remembered for writing Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements (1962), one of the great overviews of anarchism. George Woodcock ( 伍德科克,1912 - 1995) was a prolific Canadian writer of poetry, essays, criticism, biographies and historical works. Elsewhere in the world, he is probably best remembered for writing Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements (1962), one of the great overviews of anarchism. Murray Bookchin ( 布克勤,1921 – 2006) was an American libertarian socialist, political and social philosopher, environmentalist/conservationist, atheist, speaker, and writer. He called himself an anarchist. A pioneer in the ecology movement, Bookchin was the founder of the social ecology movement within libertarian socialist and ecological thought. He was an anti-capitalist and vocal advocate of the decentralization as well as partial deindustrialization and deurbanization of society. His writings on libertarian municipalism, a theory of face-to-face, grassroots democracy, had an influence on the Green movement and anti- capitalist direct action groups. Bookchin was the first to use the term “libertarian municipalism”, to describe a system in which libertarian institutions of directly democratic assemblies would oppose and replace the state with a confederation of free municipalities. Murray Bookchin ( 布克勤,1921 – 2006) was an American libertarian socialist, political and social philosopher, environmentalist/conservationist, atheist, speaker, and writer. He called himself an anarchist. A pioneer in the ecology movement, Bookchin was the founder of the social ecology movement within libertarian socialist and ecological thought. He was an anti-capitalist and vocal advocate of the decentralization as well as partial deindustrialization and deurbanization of society. His writings on libertarian municipalism, a theory of face-to-face, grassroots democracy, had an influence on the Green movement and anti- capitalist direct action groups. Bookchin was the first to use the term “libertarian municipalism”, to describe a system in which libertarian institutions of directly democratic assemblies would oppose and replace the state with a confederation of free municipalities.anti-capitalist deindustrializationdeurbanization libertarian municipalismGreen movementanti- capitalistdirect actionanti-capitalist deindustrializationdeurbanization libertarian municipalismGreen movementanti- capitalistdirect action

II. Basic characteristics of anarchism: 1. Differences and common characteristics: Anarchism is a philosophy which incorporates many diverse attitudes, tendencies and thoughts on values, ideology and tactics. Anarchism enjoys a complex relationship with the ideologies of Marxism, communism and capitalism. Specific forms of anarchism draws heavily from the specific cultural milieu from which it springs. While syndical anarchists resorted to violence, contemporary anarchists espouse nonviolence, counter-economics and anti-state cryptography. Some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by local ones. However, there are some common characteristics of anarchism, such as beliefs in the absence of government, authority and coercion, small temporary and autonomous organizations. II. Basic characteristics of anarchism: 1. Differences and common characteristics: Anarchism is a philosophy which incorporates many diverse attitudes, tendencies and thoughts on values, ideology and tactics. Anarchism enjoys a complex relationship with the ideologies of Marxism, communism and capitalism. Specific forms of anarchism draws heavily from the specific cultural milieu from which it springs. While syndical anarchists resorted to violence, contemporary anarchists espouse nonviolence, counter-economics and anti-state cryptography. Some anarchists advocate a global one, while others do so by local ones. However, there are some common characteristics of anarchism, such as beliefs in the absence of government, authority and coercion, small temporary and autonomous organizations.MarxismcommunismcapitalismMarxismcommunismcapitalism 2. General characteristics: (1) Criticize the extant social structure all-roundly: demand abolishment of state, economic system and law; suspect churches and God; criticize controlled education. (2) Eulogize natural law, oppose authority and advocate establishment of an anarchic society: believe in goodness and self-actualization of human being, individual dignity and value, local autonomy and mutual aid against hierarchical power structure, which is associated with environmentalism recently. (3) Put forward a series of theoretical standpoints for establishing a new society. (4) Absolute liberty: equality, cooperation, solidarity, libertarianism. 2. General characteristics: (1) Criticize the extant social structure all-roundly: demand abolishment of state, economic system and law; suspect churches and God; criticize controlled education. (2) Eulogize natural law, oppose authority and advocate establishment of an anarchic society: believe in goodness and self-actualization of human being, individual dignity and value, local autonomy and mutual aid against hierarchical power structure, which is associated with environmentalism recently. (3) Put forward a series of theoretical standpoints for establishing a new society. (4) Absolute liberty: equality, cooperation, solidarity, libertarianism.

Section Two Mikhail Bakunin Major Schools of Anarchism Section Two Mikhail Bakunin Major Schools of Anarchism 索列尔索列尔 Pierre-Joseph Proudhon Georges Sorel Emma Goldman Voltairine de Cleyre Benjamin Tucker Leo Tolstoy Errico Malatesta Errico Malatesta Josiah Warren Stephen Pearl Andrews Henry David Thoreau Peter Kropotkin 马拉泰斯塔 Josiah Warren Stephen Pearl Andrews Henry David Thoreau Peter Kropotkin 马拉泰斯塔

Introduction: Anarcho-syndicalism: Syndicalism is an alternative co-operative economic system. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system, regarding it as “wage slavery,” and state or private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class divisions. Given that Anarcho-Syndicalists regard the State as a hostile, profoundly anti-worker body, it follows that they should reject all forms of participation in it. Anarcho-Syndicalists deny that there can be any kind of Workers’ State, as opposed to those of the rich and powerful. Georges Sorel (1847 – 1922) was a French philosopher and theorist of revolutionary syndicalism. (see Fascism) Introduction: Anarcho-syndicalism: Syndicalism is an alternative co-operative economic system. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system, regarding it as “wage slavery,” and state or private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class divisions. Given that Anarcho-Syndicalists regard the State as a hostile, profoundly anti-worker body, it follows that they should reject all forms of participation in it. Anarcho-Syndicalists deny that there can be any kind of Workers’ State, as opposed to those of the rich and powerful. Georges Sorel (1847 – 1922) was a French philosopher and theorist of revolutionary syndicalism. (see Fascism)wage slaveryrevolutionarysyndicalismwage slaveryrevolutionarysyndicalism Arturo Labriola ( 阿尔图罗 · 拉布里奥拉, 1873 -1959) was an Italian revolutionary syndicalist and socialist politician and journalist. Labriola studied jurisprudence and joined the Italian Socialist Party in 1895, representing its revolutionary wing. After backing the riots of 1898, he had to flee in order to elude arrest. He returned to Italy in 1900, and in 1902 published a weekly called Avanguardia Socialista which became the center of activity for Italian revolutionary syndicalism. He nonetheless withdrew his support for revolution, and adopted Marxist Reformism, becoming a member of the Italian Parliament as an independent. An opponent of Fascism, he had to take exile in France, and returned only in 1945, serving as appointed senator in the Constituent Assembly of the new Republic. Arturo Labriola ( 阿尔图罗 · 拉布里奥拉, 1873 -1959) was an Italian revolutionary syndicalist and socialist politician and journalist. Labriola studied jurisprudence and joined the Italian Socialist Party in 1895, representing its revolutionary wing. After backing the riots of 1898, he had to flee in order to elude arrest. He returned to Italy in 1900, and in 1902 published a weekly called Avanguardia Socialista which became the center of activity for Italian revolutionary syndicalism. He nonetheless withdrew his support for revolution, and adopted Marxist Reformism, becoming a member of the Italian Parliament as an independent. An opponent of Fascism, he had to take exile in France, and returned only in 1945, serving as appointed senator in the Constituent Assembly of the new Republic.syndicalistsocialistItalian Socialist PartyMarxistReformismItalian ParliamentConstituent Assemblynew RepublicsyndicalistsocialistItalian Socialist PartyMarxistReformismItalian ParliamentConstituent Assemblynew Republic

Anarcha-feminism (anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism) combines anarchism with feminism. It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary hierarchy. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class struggle, and the struggle against the State. Anarchist feminism appears in individualist and collectivist forms, with individualist forms having most adherents in the United States, while in Europe anarchist feminism has had more emphasis on collectivism. Anarcha-feminism (anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism) combines anarchism with feminism. It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary hierarchy. Anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class struggle, and the struggle against the State. Anarchist feminism appears in individualist and collectivist forms, with individualist forms having most adherents in the United States, while in Europe anarchist feminism has had more emphasis on collectivism.anarchismfeminismpatriarchyclass struggleState individualistcollectivistanarchismfeminismpatriarchyclass struggleState individualistcollectivist Anarcha-feminism was inspired by late 19th and early 20th century authors and theorists such as anarchist feminists Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre. Anarcha-feminists start from the precept that modern society is dominated by men. Authoritarian traits and values—domination, exploitation, aggression, competition. etc.—are integral to hierarchical civilizations and are seen as “masculine”. In contrast, non-authoritarian traits and values—cooperation, sharing, compassion, sensitivity—are regarded as “feminine”, and devalued. Anarcha-feminists have thus espoused creation of a society, based on cooperation, sharing, mutual aid, etc. as the “feminization of society”. Anarcha-feminism was inspired by late 19th and early 20th century authors and theorists such as anarchist feminists Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre. Anarcha-feminists start from the precept that modern society is dominated by men. Authoritarian traits and values—domination, exploitation, aggression, competition. etc.—are integral to hierarchical civilizations and are seen as “masculine”. In contrast, non-authoritarian traits and values—cooperation, sharing, compassion, sensitivity—are regarded as “feminine”, and devalued. Anarcha-feminists have thus espoused creation of a society, based on cooperation, sharing, mutual aid, etc. as the “feminization of society”.Emma Goldman Voltairine de CleyrehierarchicalfeminizationEmma Goldman Voltairine de Cleyrehierarchicalfeminization Emma Goldman (1869 – 1940) was Born in the Russian Empire, emigrated to the US in 1885, where she joined the burgeoning anarchist movement. Goldman was imprisoned several times for assassination, “inciting to riot” and illegally distributing information about birth control. She was deported to Russia in 1917. In 1923, she wrote a book, My Disillusionment in Russia. While living in England, Canada, and France, she wrote an autobiography called Living My Life. After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, she traveled to Spain to support the anarchist revolution there. (see also section 1) Emma Goldman (1869 – 1940) was Born in the Russian Empire, emigrated to the US in 1885, where she joined the burgeoning anarchist movement. Goldman was imprisoned several times for assassination, “inciting to riot” and illegally distributing information about birth control. She was deported to Russia in 1917. In 1923, she wrote a book, My Disillusionment in Russia. While living in England, Canada, and France, she wrote an autobiography called Living My Life. After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, she traveled to Spain to support the anarchist revolution there. (see also section 1)Russian Empirebirth controlMy Disillusionment in RussiaLiving My Lifeanarchist revolutionRussian Empirebirth controlMy Disillusionment in RussiaLiving My Lifeanarchist revolution

Voltairine de Cleyre ( 沃太伦 · 德 · 柯莱尔, 1866 – 1912) was an American anarchist activist. Cleyre’s political perspective shifted throughout her life, eventually leading her to become an outspoken proponent of “anarchism without adjectives”, a doctrine, according to historian George Richard Esenwein, “without any qualifying labels such as communist, collectivist, mutualist, or individualist. For others, … [it] was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools.” In 1895, she gave a lecture entitled Sex Slavery. In her 1909 essay, Anarchism and American Traditions, she argued that in order to achieve peace, “all peaceful persons should withdraw their support from the army”. Voltairine de Cleyre ( 沃太伦 · 德 · 柯莱尔, 1866 – 1912) was an American anarchist activist. Cleyre’s political perspective shifted throughout her life, eventually leading her to become an outspoken proponent of “anarchism without adjectives”, a doctrine, according to historian George Richard Esenwein, “without any qualifying labels such as communist, collectivist, mutualist, or individualist. For others, … [it] was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools.” In 1895, she gave a lecture entitled Sex Slavery. In her 1909 essay, Anarchism and American Traditions, she argued that in order to achieve peace, “all peaceful persons should withdraw their support from the army”. Americananarchistanarchism without adjectives Americananarchistanarchism without adjectives Christian anarchism is any of traditions which combine anarchism with Christianity. Christian anarchists believe that freedom is justified spiritually through the teachings of Jesus. This has caused them to be critical of government and Church authority. Some believe all individuals can directly communicate with God, which negates the need for a system of clergy. Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You is a key text in modern Christian anarchism. Christian anarchist viewpoints include antinomianism, Mysticism, Pacifism and nonviolence and Simple living. Christian anarchism is any of traditions which combine anarchism with Christianity. Christian anarchists believe that freedom is justified spiritually through the teachings of Jesus. This has caused them to be critical of government and Church authority. Some believe all individuals can directly communicate with God, which negates the need for a system of clergy. Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You is a key text in modern Christian anarchism. Christian anarchist viewpoints include antinomianism, Mysticism, Pacifism and nonviolence and Simple living. anarchismChristianityfreedomspirituallyJesusgovernmentChurch authorityLeo TolstoyThe Kingdom of God Is Within You anarchismChristianityfreedomspirituallyJesusgovernmentChurch authorityLeo TolstoyThe Kingdom of God Is Within You

Leo Tolstoy (1828 – 1910), was a Russian count and writer widely regarded as among the greatest of novelists. His literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, particularly the injunction to turn the other cheek, caused him in later life to become a fervent Christian anarchist and pacifist. His ideas on nonviolent resistance, expressed in such works as The Kingdom of God Is Within You, were to have a profound impact on such pivotal twentieth-century figures as Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. Tolstoy believed that a true Christian could find lasting happiness through following the Great Commandment rather than looking outward to the Church or state. He also opposed private property and the institution of marriage. Leo Tolstoy (1828 – 1910), was a Russian count and writer widely regarded as among the greatest of novelists. His literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, particularly the injunction to turn the other cheek, caused him in later life to become a fervent Christian anarchist and pacifist. His ideas on nonviolent resistance, expressed in such works as The Kingdom of God Is Within You, were to have a profound impact on such pivotal twentieth-century figures as Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. Tolstoy believed that a true Christian could find lasting happiness through following the Great Commandment rather than looking outward to the Church or state. He also opposed private property and the institution of marriage.Sermon on the Mountturn the other cheekChristian anarchistpacifistnonviolent resistanceThe Kingdom of God Is Within YouGandhiMartin Luther King, Jr.Great CommandmentSermon on the Mountturn the other cheekChristian anarchistpacifistnonviolent resistanceThe Kingdom of God Is Within YouGandhiMartin Luther King, Jr.Great Commandment Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and his/her will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. Benjamin R. Tucker, a famous 19th century individualist anarchist, held that “if the individual has the right to govern himself, all external government is tyranny.” Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and his/her will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. Benjamin R. Tucker, a famous 19th century individualist anarchist, held that “if the individual has the right to govern himself, all external government is tyranny.”anarchistBenjamin R. TuckeranarchistBenjamin R. Tucker Collectivist anarchism advocates the abolition of the state and private ownership of the means of production, with the means of production instead being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. It is represented by Bakunin. Collectivist anarchism advocates the abolition of the state and private ownership of the means of production, with the means of production instead being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. It is represented by Bakunin.state private ownershipmeans of productionstate private ownershipmeans of production

Anarchist communism is a theory of anarchism advocates the abolition of the state, private property, and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct or consensus democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations, workers' councils, or a gift economy through which everyone will be free to satisfy their needs. Its representatives are Peter Kropotkin and Murray Bookchin. Anarchist communism is a theory of anarchism advocates the abolition of the state, private property, and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct or consensus democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations, workers' councils, or a gift economy through which everyone will be free to satisfy their needs. Its representatives are Peter Kropotkin and Murray Bookchin.anarchismstatePeter Kropotkin Murray BookchinanarchismstatePeter Kropotkin Murray Bookchin Anarcho-capitalism is an individualist anarchist political philosophy that advocates the elimination of the state and the elevation of the sovereign individual in a free market. In an anarcho- capitalist society, law enforcement, courts, and all other security services are provided by voluntarily-funded competitors such as private defense agencies rather than through compulsory taxation. Personal and economic activities are regulated by the natural laws of the market through private law. Anarcho-capitalism is an individualist anarchist political philosophy that advocates the elimination of the state and the elevation of the sovereign individual in a free market. In an anarcho- capitalist society, law enforcement, courts, and all other security services are provided by voluntarily-funded competitors such as private defense agencies rather than through compulsory taxation. Personal and economic activities are regulated by the natural laws of the market through private law.individualist anarchiststatesovereign individualfree marketlaw enforcementcourts private defense agenciescompulsory taxationeconomicnatural lawsmarketprivate lawindividualist anarchiststatesovereign individualfree marketlaw enforcementcourts private defense agenciescompulsory taxationeconomicnatural lawsmarketprivate law Post-anarchism is the term used to represent anarchist philosophies developed since the 1980s using post-structuralist and postmodernist approaches. Some prefer to use the term poststructuralist anarchism. It is not a single coherent theory, but rather is different for each thinker, with particular concentration on Emma Goldman and Max Stirner. Post-anarchism is the term used to represent anarchist philosophies developed since the 1980s using post-structuralist and postmodernist approaches. Some prefer to use the term poststructuralist anarchism. It is not a single coherent theory, but rather is different for each thinker, with particular concentration on Emma Goldman and Max Stirner.anarchist philosophiespost-structuralist postmodernistEmma GoldmanMax Stirneranarchist philosophiespost-structuralist postmodernistEmma GoldmanMax Stirner

Crypto-anarchism is an ideology that expounds the use of strong public-key cryptography to enforce privacy and individual freedom. Crypto-anarchists aim to create cryptographic software that can be used to evade prosecution and harassment while sending and receiving information in computer networks. Crypto-anarchism is an ideology that expounds the use of strong public-key cryptography to enforce privacy and individual freedom. Crypto-anarchists aim to create cryptographic software that can be used to evade prosecution and harassment while sending and receiving information in computer networks.ideology public-key cryptographyprivacyfreedomideology public-key cryptographyprivacyfreedom Technological anarchism is seen by some anarchists as the way to replace hierarchy, defeat monopoly, and prevent war. Some writers, particularly, who has written in the science fiction genre, have theorized that anarchism would be inevitable with the technological advances that would make living in space plausible. Technological anarchism is seen by some anarchists as the way to replace hierarchy, defeat monopoly, and prevent war. Some writers, particularly, who has written in the science fiction genre, have theorized that anarchism would be inevitable with the technological advances that would make living in space plausible. Utopian Anarchism is a system of coordination in which the main goal/goals of the freely formed group are clearly laid out and focused upon, making all other aspects of life guided to further advancement toward these goals. The philosophy implies that without clear conscious thought on the “meaning of life”, satisfaction shall never truly be achieved. Life is not static, so utopia refers not to a vague dream, a static environment in which “all are happy,” but rather utopia is achieved as soon as this fluid system is achieved, recognizing that all goals change at all times, and progress is the source of satisfaction. Direction, the "big picture" should be maintained at all times, thus making many difficult life and moral decisions easy. Utopian Anarchism is a system of coordination in which the main goal/goals of the freely formed group are clearly laid out and focused upon, making all other aspects of life guided to further advancement toward these goals. The philosophy implies that without clear conscious thought on the “meaning of life”, satisfaction shall never truly be achieved. Life is not static, so utopia refers not to a vague dream, a static environment in which “all are happy,” but rather utopia is achieved as soon as this fluid system is achieved, recognizing that all goals change at all times, and progress is the source of satisfaction. Direction, the "big picture" should be maintained at all times, thus making many difficult life and moral decisions easy.utopia

Spiritual Anarchism, or Divine Anarchy, was originally expressed by the political revolutionary, poet and yogi Sri Aurobindo during the First World War in a series of articles published in the Arya, and later made available in two books, The Human Cycle and The Ideal of Human Unity. A spiritual anarchist holds that a perfect form of social organization can only be achieved by governing our individual and collective life by a higher light than the intellectual reason, a deeper law of solidarity and oneness than emotional or mental bonds of association. Spiritual Anarchism, or Divine Anarchy, was originally expressed by the political revolutionary, poet and yogi Sri Aurobindo during the First World War in a series of articles published in the Arya, and later made available in two books, The Human Cycle and The Ideal of Human Unity. A spiritual anarchist holds that a perfect form of social organization can only be achieved by governing our individual and collective life by a higher light than the intellectual reason, a deeper law of solidarity and oneness than emotional or mental bonds of association. Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory, practice and tendency within the anarchist movement which opposes formal organizations such as labor unions and federations that are based on a political programme and periodic congresses. Instead, insurrectionary anarchists favor informal organization and small affinity group based organization. Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory, practice and tendency within the anarchist movement which opposes formal organizations such as labor unions and federations that are based on a political programme and periodic congresses. Instead, insurrectionary anarchists favor informal organization and small affinity group based organization. The main difference between insurrectionary anarchism and the common strand of anarchism, anarcho-communism is that insurrectionism does not value social movements, organizing, or strategic campaigning for social change. In the united states, the student occupations of the University of California, Santa Cruz most illustrate this difference. The main difference between insurrectionary anarchism and the common strand of anarchism, anarcho-communism is that insurrectionism does not value social movements, organizing, or strategic campaigning for social change. In the united states, the student occupations of the University of California, Santa Cruz most illustrate this difference.anarcho-communism

Anarcho-primitivism is an anarchist critique of the origins and progress of civilization. According to anarcho-primitivism, the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to social stratification, coercion, and alienation. Anarcho-primitivists advocate a return to non-“civilized” ways of life through deindustrialisation. Anarcho-primitivism is an anarchist critique of the origins and progress of civilization. According to anarcho-primitivism, the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to social stratification, coercion, and alienation. Anarcho-primitivists advocate a return to non-“civilized” ways of life through deindustrialisation.anarchistcivilizationhunter-gathereragriculturalsocial stratificationcoercionalienationdeindustrialisationanarchistcivilizationhunter-gathereragriculturalsocial stratificationcoercionalienationdeindustrialisation Eco-anarchism argues that small eco-villages are the correct scale of human living, and that infrastructure and political systems should be re-organized to ensure that these are created. Eco-anarchism argues that small eco-villages are the correct scale of human living, and that infrastructure and political systems should be re-organized to ensure that these are created.eco-villages It combines older trends towards primitivism, bioregional democracy, feminism, pacifism, secession and intentional community. In general, eco-anarchists reject the notion of humanity as a whole and human dignity in particular. It combines older trends towards primitivism, bioregional democracy, feminism, pacifism, secession and intentional community. In general, eco-anarchists reject the notion of humanity as a whole and human dignity in particular. One of the most influential pieces of eco-anarchist literature is Ishmael (novel), by Daniel Quinn, which relates conversations between a man and an ape. This book won a contest run by to find alternatives to the traditional “eat the rich” opposition to capitalism. One of the most influential pieces of eco-anarchist literature is Ishmael (novel), by Daniel Quinn, which relates conversations between a man and an ape. This book won a contest run by to find alternatives to the traditional “eat the rich” opposition to capitalism.capitalism I. Individualist anarchism: 1. General situation: emphasize the individual and his/her will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. I. Individualist anarchism: 1. General situation: emphasize the individual and his/her will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict.

Early influences in individualist anarchism were the thought of William Godwin, Henry David Thoreau (transcendentalism), Josiah Warren (“sovereignty of the individual”), Lysander Spooner (“natural law”), Pierre Joseph Proudhon (mutualism), Herbert Spencer (“law of equal liberty”) and Max Stirner (egoism). From there it expanded through Europe and the United States. Individualist anarchism of different kinds have a few things in common. These are: Early influences in individualist anarchism were the thought of William Godwin, Henry David Thoreau (transcendentalism), Josiah Warren (“sovereignty of the individual”), Lysander Spooner (“natural law”), Pierre Joseph Proudhon (mutualism), Herbert Spencer (“law of equal liberty”) and Max Stirner (egoism). From there it expanded through Europe and the United States. Individualist anarchism of different kinds have a few things in common. These are: William GodwinHenry David ThoreautranscendentalismJosiah Warrensovereignty of the individualLysander Spoonernatural lawPierre Joseph ProudhonmutualismHerbert Spencerlaw of equal libertyMax Stirneregoism William GodwinHenry David ThoreautranscendentalismJosiah Warrensovereignty of the individualLysander Spoonernatural lawPierre Joseph ProudhonmutualismHerbert Spencerlaw of equal libertyMax Stirneregoism (1) The concentration and elevation on the individual and his/her over any kind of social or exterior reality or construction such as morality, ideology, social custom, religion, metaphysics, ideas or the will of others. (1) The concentration and elevation on the individual and his/her over any kind of social or exterior reality or construction such as morality, ideology, social custom, religion, metaphysics, ideas or the will of others. (2) The rejection or reservations on the idea of revolution seeing it as a time of mass uprising which could bring about new hierarchies. Instead they favor more evolutionary methods of bringing about anarchy. (2) The rejection or reservations on the idea of revolution seeing it as a time of mass uprising which could bring about new hierarchies. Instead they favor more evolutionary methods of bringing about anarchy.revolutionevolutionaryrevolutionevolutionary (3) The view that relationships with other persons or things can only be of one’s own interest and can be as transitory and without compromises as desired since in individualist anarchism sacrifice is usually rejected. In this way Max Stirner recommended associations of egoists. In regards to economic questions there are adherents to mutualism, egoistic disrespect for “ghosts” such as private property and markets, and adherents to anarcho-communism. (3) The view that relationships with other persons or things can only be of one’s own interest and can be as transitory and without compromises as desired since in individualist anarchism sacrifice is usually rejected. In this way Max Stirner recommended associations of egoists. In regards to economic questions there are adherents to mutualism, egoistic disrespect for “ghosts” such as private property and markets, and adherents to anarcho-communism. mutualismegoisticanarcho-communism mutualismegoisticanarcho-communism

2. Early individualist anarchists in the mid 1800s: Better known as Max Stirner ( 马克斯 · 施蒂纳, 1806 – 1856), was a German philosopher, who ranks as one of the literary fathers of nihilism, existentialism, post-modernism and anarchism, especially of individualist anarchism. The Ego and Its Own portrays the life of a human individual as dominated by authoritarian concepts (‘fixed ideas’ or ‘spooks’), which must be shaken and undermined. These concepts include primarily religion and ideology, and the institutions claiming authority over the individual. The primary implication of undermining these concepts and institutions is an ethical egoism, which transcends language. Individuals should only entertain temporary associations, but only when in each individual’s interest. 2. Early individualist anarchists in the mid 1800s: Better known as Max Stirner ( 马克斯 · 施蒂纳, 1806 – 1856), was a German philosopher, who ranks as one of the literary fathers of nihilism, existentialism, post-modernism and anarchism, especially of individualist anarchism. The Ego and Its Own portrays the life of a human individual as dominated by authoritarian concepts (‘fixed ideas’ or ‘spooks’), which must be shaken and undermined. These concepts include primarily religion and ideology, and the institutions claiming authority over the individual. The primary implication of undermining these concepts and institutions is an ethical egoism, which transcends language. Individuals should only entertain temporary associations, but only when in each individual’s interest.German philosophernihilism existentialismpost-modernismanarchism individualist anarchismreligionideologyethical egoismGerman philosophernihilism existentialismpost-modernismanarchism individualist anarchismreligionideologyethical egoism Henry David Thoreau ( 亨利 · 戴维 · 梭罗, 1817 – 1862) was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist. His book Walden, is a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings. Civil Disobedience is Thoreau’s essay that argues that people should not permit governments to overrule or atrophy their consciences, and that people have a duty to avoid allowing such acquiescence to enable the government to make them the agents of injustice. The aphorism sometimes, "That government is best which governs least", actually was first found in this essay. Henry David Thoreau ( 亨利 · 戴维 · 梭罗, 1817 – 1862) was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist. His book Walden, is a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings. Civil Disobedience is Thoreau’s essay that argues that people should not permit governments to overrule or atrophy their consciences, and that people have a duty to avoid allowing such acquiescence to enable the government to make them the agents of injustice. The aphorism sometimes, "That government is best which governs least", actually was first found in this essay.transcendentalistWaldensimple living acquiescencetranscendentalistWaldensimple living acquiescence

3. Individualist anarchism in the latter part of the 1800s and the early 1900s: Benjamin Ricketson Tucker ( 班杰明 · 塔克, 1854 –1939) was a leading proponent of American individualist anarchism in the 19th century, and editor and publisher of the individualist anarchist periodical Liberty. Tucker argued that the poor condition of American workers resulted from four legal monopolies based in authority: the money monopoly, the land monopoly, tariffs, and patents. 3. Individualist anarchism in the latter part of the 1800s and the early 1900s: Benjamin Ricketson Tucker ( 班杰明 · 塔克, 1854 –1939) was a leading proponent of American individualist anarchism in the 19th century, and editor and publisher of the individualist anarchist periodical Liberty. Tucker argued that the poor condition of American workers resulted from four legal monopolies based in authority: the money monopoly, the land monopoly, tariffs, and patents.Americanindividualist anarchismLibertylegal monopoliesAmericanindividualist anarchismLibertylegal monopolies Absolute individual rights: “Interest is theft, rent Robbery, and profit only another name for plunder.” He said that a person who physically tries to stop a mother from throwing her “baby into the fire" should be punished for violating her property rights. Absolute individual rights: “Interest is theft, rent Robbery, and profit only another name for plunder.” He said that a person who physically tries to stop a mother from throwing her “baby into the fire" should be punished for violating her property rights. Josiah Warren ( 约书亚 · 沃伦, 1798-1874) was an individualist anarchist, inventor, socialist, musician, and author in the United States. Biographer William Bailie regarded him as the first American anarchist, and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published. Warren is notable for expounding the idea of “sovereignty of the individual”. He termed the phrase “Cost the limit of price”, with “cost” here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item. Josiah Warren ( 约书亚 · 沃伦, 1798-1874) was an individualist anarchist, inventor, socialist, musician, and author in the United States. Biographer William Bailie regarded him as the first American anarchist, and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published. Warren is notable for expounding the idea of “sovereignty of the individual”. He termed the phrase “Cost the limit of price”, with “cost” here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item.individualist anarchistUnited States anarchistsovereignty of the individualCost the limit of priceindividualist anarchistUnited States anarchistsovereignty of the individualCost the limit of price

Stephen Andrews ( 史蒂芬 · 安德鲁斯, 1812 – 1886) was an American individualist anarchist. His “Cost Principle” held that individuals should be paid according to the amount of labor they exert rather than according to the benefit that another receives from that labor (the latter being called the “Value Principle”). He, after Josiah Warren, advocated an economy that uses “labor notes”. Stephen Andrews ( 史蒂芬 · 安德鲁斯, 1812 – 1886) was an American individualist anarchist. His “Cost Principle” held that individuals should be paid according to the amount of labor they exert rather than according to the benefit that another receives from that labor (the latter being called the “Value Principle”). He, after Josiah Warren, advocated an economy that uses “labor notes”. Americanindividualist anarchistlabor notes Americanindividualist anarchistlabor notes 4. Individualist anarchists after WW II: Murray Rothbard ( 穆雷 · 罗思巴德, 1926 –1995) was an American individualist anarchist, author and economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern libertarianism and popularized a form of free-market anarchism he termed “anarcho-capitalism”. Building on the Austrian School’s concept of spontaneous order, Rothbard sought to minimize coercive government,labeling the State as nothing but a “gang of thieves writ large”. 4. Individualist anarchists after WW II: Murray Rothbard ( 穆雷 · 罗思巴德, 1926 –1995) was an American individualist anarchist, author and economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern libertarianism and popularized a form of free-market anarchism he termed “anarcho-capitalism”. Building on the Austrian School’s concept of spontaneous order, Rothbard sought to minimize coercive government,labeling the State as nothing but a “gang of thieves writ large”.individualist anarchist authoreconomistAustrian Schoollibertarianismfree-market anarchismanarcho-capitalismspontaneous order coerciveindividualist anarchist authoreconomistAustrian Schoollibertarianismfree-market anarchismanarcho-capitalismspontaneous order coercive Rothbard concluded that services provided by governments could be provided efficiently by the private sector. He argued that taxation represents coercive theft, and “a compulsory monopoly of force” prohibiting the more efficient voluntary procurement of defense and judicial services from competing suppliers. He considered central banking and fractional reserve banking under a monopoly fiat money system a form of state-sponsored, legalized financial fraud. Rothbard concluded that services provided by governments could be provided efficiently by the private sector. He argued that taxation represents coercive theft, and “a compulsory monopoly of force” prohibiting the more efficient voluntary procurement of defense and judicial services from competing suppliers. He considered central banking and fractional reserve banking under a monopoly fiat money system a form of state-sponsored, legalized financial fraud.taxationmonopolycentral bankingfractional reserve bankingtaxationmonopolycentral bankingfractional reserve banking

II. Anarchist communism: General situation: Anarchist communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, private property, and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct or consensus democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations, workers’councils, or a gift economy. Anarcho-communism stresses egalitarianism and the abolition of social hierarchy and class distinctions that arise from unequal wealth distribution, as well as the abolition of wage labor, private property and money. II. Anarchist communism: General situation: Anarchist communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, private property, and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct or consensus democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations, workers’councils, or a gift economy. Anarcho-communism stresses egalitarianism and the abolition of social hierarchy and class distinctions that arise from unequal wealth distribution, as well as the abolition of wage labor, private property and money.anarchismstateprivate propertycapitalismdirectconsensus democracyvoluntary associationsworkers’councilsgift economyegalitarianismsocial hierarchywage labor private propertymoneyanarchismstateprivate propertycapitalismdirectconsensus democracyvoluntary associationsworkers’councilsgift economyegalitarianismsocial hierarchywage labor private propertymoney Anarchist communist currents appeared during the English Civil War and the French Revolution. A member of the radical Diggers movement in England, wrote in the 1649 pamphlet, The New Law of Righteousness. During the French Revolution, Sylvain Maréchal, in his Manifesto of the Equals (1796). An early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as “libertarian”. He argued that, “it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature.” Anarchist communist currents appeared during the English Civil War and the French Revolution. A member of the radical Diggers movement in England, wrote in the 1649 pamphlet, The New Law of Righteousness. During the French Revolution, Sylvain Maréchal, in his Manifesto of the Equals (1796). An early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as “libertarian”. He argued that, “it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature.”English Civil WarFrench RevolutionDiggersEnglandSylvain Maréchal Joseph DéjacquelibertarianEnglish Civil WarFrench RevolutionDiggersEnglandSylvain Maréchal Joseph Déjacquelibertarian Mikhail Bakunin (1814 -1876) was born in the Russian Empire to a family of Russian nobles. He spent his youth as a junior officer in the Russian army, went to school in Moscow to study philosophy and began to frequent radical circles. He left Russia in 1842 for Dresden, and then arrived in Paris, where he met Proudhon and Marx. He was deported from France for speaking against Russia’s oppression of Poland. In 1849 he was apprehended in Dresden for his participation in the Czech rebellion of 1848. He was turned over to Russia where he was imprisoned. In 1857, he was exiled to Siberia. Mikhail Bakunin (1814 -1876) was born in the Russian Empire to a family of Russian nobles. He spent his youth as a junior officer in the Russian army, went to school in Moscow to study philosophy and began to frequent radical circles. He left Russia in 1842 for Dresden, and then arrived in Paris, where he met Proudhon and Marx. He was deported from France for speaking against Russia’s oppression of Poland. In 1849 he was apprehended in Dresden for his participation in the Czech rebellion of 1848. He was turned over to Russia where he was imprisoned. In 1857, he was exiled to Siberia.Russian EmpireRussiannoblesMoscowphilosophyDresdenParisProudhon MarxCzech rebellion of 1848SiberiaRussian EmpireRussiannoblesMoscowphilosophyDresdenParisProudhon MarxCzech rebellion of 1848Siberia

Bakunin was able to escape via Japan and the USA, and ended up in London for a short time. In 1863, he spent some time in Switzerland and Italy. Despite his criminal status, Bakunin gained great influence with radical youth in Russia, and all of Europe. In 1870, he was involved in the insurrection in Lyon, which foreshadowed the Paris Commune. Bakunin was able to escape via Japan and the USA, and ended up in London for a short time. In 1863, he spent some time in Switzerland and Italy. Despite his criminal status, Bakunin gained great influence with radical youth in Russia, and all of Europe. In 1870, he was involved in the insurrection in Lyon, which foreshadowed the Paris Commune.JapanUSALondonSwitzerlandItalyLyonParis CommuneJapanUSALondonSwitzerlandItalyLyonParis Commune In 1868, Bakunin joined the International Working Men's Association. The 1872 Congress was dominated by a fight between a faction around Marx and a faction around Bakunin. Bakunin’s faction lost the vote, and were expelled for supposedly maintaining a secret organization within the international. The anarchists insisted the congress was rigged, and so held their own conference of the International at Saint- Imier in Switzerland in 1872. Bakunin remained very active in this and the European socialist movement. From 1870 to 1876, he wrote much of his seminal work such as Statism and Anarchy and God and the State. Despite his declining health, he tried to take part in an insurrection in Bologna. He died in Berne in 1876. In 1868, Bakunin joined the International Working Men's Association. The 1872 Congress was dominated by a fight between a faction around Marx and a faction around Bakunin. Bakunin’s faction lost the vote, and were expelled for supposedly maintaining a secret organization within the international. The anarchists insisted the congress was rigged, and so held their own conference of the International at Saint- Imier in Switzerland in 1872. Bakunin remained very active in this and the European socialist movement. From 1870 to 1876, he wrote much of his seminal work such as Statism and Anarchy and God and the State. Despite his declining health, he tried to take part in an insurrection in Bologna. He died in Berne in 1876.International Working Men's AssociationStatism and AnarchyGod and the StateBolognaInternational Working Men's AssociationStatism and AnarchyGod and the StateBologna Bakunin is remembered as a major figure in the history of anarchism and an opponent of Marxism, especially of Marx’s idea of dictatorship of the proletariat. Bakunin is remembered as a major figure in the history of anarchism and an opponent of Marxism, especially of Marx’s idea of dictatorship of the proletariat.dictatorship of the proletariatdictatorship of the proletariat Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921) was a geographer, zoologist, and anarchists. One of the first advocates of anarchist communism, Kropotkin advocated a communist society free from central government. Because of his title of prince, he was known by some as “the Anarchist Prince”. In 1902 Kropotkin published the book Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, which provided an alternative view on animal and human survival, beyond the claims of 'Survival of the Fittest' proffered at the time by some "social Darwinists“. He died on February 8, 1921 in the city of Dmitrov, Moscow province and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow. Anarchists marched in his funeral procession carrying banners with anti-Bolshevik slogans, at Lenin’s approval. Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921) was a geographer, zoologist, and anarchists. One of the first advocates of anarchist communism, Kropotkin advocated a communist society free from central government. Because of his title of prince, he was known by some as “the Anarchist Prince”. In 1902 Kropotkin published the book Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, which provided an alternative view on animal and human survival, beyond the claims of 'Survival of the Fittest' proffered at the time by some "social Darwinists“. He died on February 8, 1921 in the city of Dmitrov, Moscow province and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow. Anarchists marched in his funeral procession carrying banners with anti-Bolshevik slogans, at Lenin’s approval.anarchist communismcommunistgovernmentprinceMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolutionsocial DarwinistsFebruary 81921DmitrovNovodevichy Cemeteryanarchist communismcommunistgovernmentprinceMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolutionsocial DarwinistsFebruary 81921DmitrovNovodevichy Cemetery

Murray Bookchin ( 默里 · 布克钦, 1921 – 2006) was an American libertarian socialist, political and social philosopher, environmentalist or conservationist, atheist, speaker, and writer. For much of his life he called himself an anarchist. A pioneer in the ecology movement, Bookchin was the founder of the social ecology movement within libertarian socialist and ecological thought. He was the author of two dozen books on politics, philosophy, history, and urban affairs as well as ecology. Murray Bookchin ( 默里 · 布克钦, 1921 – 2006) was an American libertarian socialist, political and social philosopher, environmentalist or conservationist, atheist, speaker, and writer. For much of his life he called himself an anarchist. A pioneer in the ecology movement, Bookchin was the founder of the social ecology movement within libertarian socialist and ecological thought. He was the author of two dozen books on politics, philosophy, history, and urban affairs as well as ecology.Americanlibertarian socialistenvironmentalistconservationistatheistanarchistsocial ecologyAmericanlibertarian socialistenvironmentalistconservationistatheistanarchistsocial ecology Bookchin was an anti-capitalist and vocal advocate of the decentralisation as well as partial deindustrialization and deurbanization of society. His writings on libertarian municipalism, a theory of face-to-face, grassroots democracy, had an influence on the Green movement and anti-capitalist direct action groups such as Reclaim the Streets. He was a staunch critic of biocentric philosophies such as deep ecology and the biologically deterministic beliefs of sociobiology, and his criticisms of “new age” Greens (Green Economics: Responsibility and understanding our own impacts and effects on others and the world, and ensuring our legacy is not about trash and squander but about growth in nature and growth in the real world) contributed to the divisions that affected the American Green movement in the 1990s. Bookchin was an anti-capitalist and vocal advocate of the decentralisation as well as partial deindustrialization and deurbanization of society. His writings on libertarian municipalism, a theory of face-to-face, grassroots democracy, had an influence on the Green movement and anti-capitalist direct action groups such as Reclaim the Streets. He was a staunch critic of biocentric philosophies such as deep ecology and the biologically deterministic beliefs of sociobiology, and his criticisms of “new age” Greens (Green Economics: Responsibility and understanding our own impacts and effects on others and the world, and ensuring our legacy is not about trash and squander but about growth in nature and growth in the real world) contributed to the divisions that affected the American Green movement in the 1990s.anti-capitalistdecentralisationdeindustrializationdeurbanization libertarian municipalismGreen movementanti-capitalistdirect action Reclaim the Streetsbiocentricdeep ecologybiologically deterministicsociobiologynew ageanti-capitalistdecentralisationdeindustrializationdeurbanization libertarian municipalismGreen movementanti-capitalistdirect action Reclaim the Streetsbiocentricdeep ecologybiologically deterministicsociobiologynew age Errico Malatesta ( 艾力格 · 马拉泰斯塔, 1853 – 1932) was an Italian anarcho- communist. He was an insurrectionary anarchist early in his life. He spent much of his life exiled from his homeland of Italy and in total spent more than ten years in prison. He wrote and edited a number of radical newspapers and was also a friend of Mikhail Bakunin. He always rejected party politics and political revolution, preferring social revolution; he was even suspicious of the use of revolutionary trade unions, as anarcho-syndicalists advocate. His constant work as an organizer and speaker embodied his ideals of free association: for Malatesta, it was useful to join an organization only for the purpose of doing something with that group of people. There was no sense in belonging to a group simply to belong. Errico Malatesta ( 艾力格 · 马拉泰斯塔, 1853 – 1932) was an Italian anarcho- communist. He was an insurrectionary anarchist early in his life. He spent much of his life exiled from his homeland of Italy and in total spent more than ten years in prison. He wrote and edited a number of radical newspapers and was also a friend of Mikhail Bakunin. He always rejected party politics and political revolution, preferring social revolution; he was even suspicious of the use of revolutionary trade unions, as anarcho-syndicalists advocate. His constant work as an organizer and speaker embodied his ideals of free association: for Malatesta, it was useful to join an organization only for the purpose of doing something with that group of people. There was no sense in belonging to a group simply to belong.Italiananarcho- communistinsurrectionary anarchistItaly prison Mikhail Bakunintrade unionsanarcho-syndicalistsItaliananarcho- communistinsurrectionary anarchistItaly prison Mikhail Bakunintrade unionsanarcho-syndicalists

Section Three The Destiny of Anarchism George Woodcock ( 伍德科克 ) Sam Dolgoff ( 道格夫 ) Daniel Guérin ( 古尔宁 ) Noam Chomsky ( 乔姆斯基 ) George Woodcock ( 伍德科克 ) Sam Dolgoff ( 道格夫 ) Daniel Guérin ( 古尔宁 ) Noam Chomsky ( 乔姆斯基 ) Anarchism is to Political Philosophy as Skepticism is to EpistemologyAnarchism is to Political Philosophy as Skepticism is to Epistemology: Epistemological origin of modern and contemporary anarchism Anarchism is to Political Philosophy as Skepticism is to Epistemology Modern anarchism, however, sprang from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, particularly Jean-Jacques Rousseau‘s arguments for the moral centrality of freedom. It first entered the English language in 1642 during the English Civil War as a term of abuse used by Royalists to damn those who were fomenting disorder. By the time of the French Revolution, some began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralization of power, seeing “revolutionary government” as oxymoronic ( 矛盾修饰法 ). Modern anarchism, however, sprang from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, particularly Jean-Jacques Rousseau‘s arguments for the moral centrality of freedom. It first entered the English language in 1642 during the English Civil War as a term of abuse used by Royalists to damn those who were fomenting disorder. By the time of the French Revolution, some began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralization of power, seeing “revolutionary government” as oxymoronic ( 矛盾修饰法 ).EnlightenmentJean-Jacques RousseauEnglish Civil Warterm of abuseRoyalistsFrench RevolutionJacobinoxymoronicEnlightenmentJean-Jacques RousseauEnglish Civil Warterm of abuseRoyalistsFrench RevolutionJacobinoxymoronic

Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work, while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early Edmund Burke. Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work, while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early Edmund Burke.Peter KropotkinEdmund BurkePeter KropotkinEdmund Burke Post-classical schools of thought: since the revival of anarchism in the U.S. in the 1960s, a number of new movements and schools have emerged. Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical anti-state libertarianism as a rejuvenated form of individualist anarchism, it draws from ideas like Austrian School, law and economics or public choice, while the burgeoning feminist and environmentalist movements also produced anarchist offshoots. Post-classical schools of thought: since the revival of anarchism in the U.S. in the 1960s, a number of new movements and schools have emerged. Anarcho-capitalism developed from radical anti-state libertarianism as a rejuvenated form of individualist anarchism, it draws from ideas like Austrian School, law and economics or public choice, while the burgeoning feminist and environmentalist movements also produced anarchist offshoots.U.S.Anarcho-capitalism libertarianismindividualist anarchismAustrian Schoollaw and economicspublic choicefeministenvironmentalistU.S.Anarcho-capitalism libertarianismindividualist anarchismAustrian Schoollaw and economicspublic choicefeministenvironmentalist Post-left anarchy is a tendency which seeks to distance itself from the traditional “Left” and to escape the confines of ideology in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary “leftist” movements, single issue causes and calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought, and a specifically anti- authoritarian revolutionary movement outside the leftist milieu. Post-left anarchy is a tendency which seeks to distance itself from the traditional “Left” and to escape the confines of ideology in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary “leftist” movements, single issue causes and calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought, and a specifically anti- authoritarian revolutionary movement outside the leftist milieu.Left Post-anarchism is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought. Post-anarchism is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought. Similarities of the origins of anarchism: Radically opposing governmental control and authority, but draws from both the radicalism and conservatism. Similarities of the origins of anarchism: Radically opposing governmental control and authority, but draws from both the radicalism and conservatism.

The Animal Liberation Front is a name used internationally by animal liberation activists who engage in direct action on behalf of animals. This includes removing animals from laboratories and fur farms. According to their public statements, acts that further the cause of animal liberation, where all reasonable precautions are taken not to harm human or non-human life, may be claimed as an ALF action. The Animal Liberation Front is a name used internationally by animal liberation activists who engage in direct action on behalf of animals. This includes removing animals from laboratories and fur farms. According to their public statements, acts that further the cause of animal liberation, where all reasonable precautions are taken not to harm human or non-human life, may be claimed as an ALF action. animal liberationdirect actionlaboratoriesfur farms animal liberationdirect actionlaboratoriesfur farms The Earth Liberation Front is the collective name for anonymous and autonomous individuals or covert cells who, according to the ELF Press Office, use “economic sabotage and guerrilla warfare to stop the exploitation and destruction of the environment”. The intellectual underpinnings rationalizing such actions is known as Rewilding. The ELF was founded in Brighton in the United Kingdom in 1992 and spread to the rest of Europe by 1994. It is now an international movement with attacks reported in 17 countries and is widely regarded as the Animal Liberation Front’s younger sister. Using the same leaderless resistance model, sympathizers say that it is an eco- defense group dedicated to taking the profit motive out of environmental destruction by causing economic damage to businesses through the use of direct action. The Earth Liberation Front is the collective name for anonymous and autonomous individuals or covert cells who, according to the ELF Press Office, use “economic sabotage and guerrilla warfare to stop the exploitation and destruction of the environment”. The intellectual underpinnings rationalizing such actions is known as Rewilding. The ELF was founded in Brighton in the United Kingdom in 1992 and spread to the rest of Europe by 1994. It is now an international movement with attacks reported in 17 countries and is widely regarded as the Animal Liberation Front’s younger sister. Using the same leaderless resistance model, sympathizers say that it is an eco- defense group dedicated to taking the profit motive out of environmental destruction by causing economic damage to businesses through the use of direct action.ELF Press Officeguerrilla warfare exploitationdestruction of the environmentRewildingBrightonUnited Kingdom movementAnimal Liberation Frontleaderless resistanceeco- defenseprofitdirect actionELF Press Officeguerrilla warfare exploitationdestruction of the environmentRewildingBrightonUnited Kingdom movementAnimal Liberation Frontleaderless resistanceeco- defenseprofitdirect action The ELF was classified as the top domestic terror threat in the United States by the FBI in March 2001, and are categorised as “eco- terrorists”. The ELF was classified as the top domestic terror threat in the United States by the FBI in March 2001, and are categorised as “eco- terrorists”.domestic terrorFBIeco- terroristsdomestic terrorFBIeco- terrorists

George Woodcock ( 伍德科克,1912 - 1995) was a prolific Canadian writer of poetry, essays, criticism, biographies and historical works. He was also the founder of (1959) the journal Canadian Literature—the first journal dedicated to Canadian writing. Elsewhere in the world, he is probably best remembered for writing Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements (1962), one of the great overviews of anarchism. George Woodcock ( 伍德科克,1912 - 1995) was a prolific Canadian writer of poetry, essays, criticism, biographies and historical works. He was also the founder of (1959) the journal Canadian Literature—the first journal dedicated to Canadian writing. Elsewhere in the world, he is probably best remembered for writing Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements (1962), one of the great overviews of anarchism. CanadianwriterCanadian Literatureanarchism CanadianwriterCanadian Literatureanarchism Sam Dolgoff ( 道格夫,1902-1990) was a Russian American anarchist and anarcho-syndicalist. He joined the Industrial Workers of the World in 1922. He was a co-founder of the Libertarian Labor Review magazine, which was later re-named Anarcho-Syndicalist Review. Dolgoff was a member of libertarian groups and editor in the 1920s to1930s, and co-founded the Libertarian League in New York in 1954. Dolgoff was friends with Murray Bookchin, but he was opposed to Bookchin’s theory of Social Ecology. Sam Dolgoff ( 道格夫,1902-1990) was a Russian American anarchist and anarcho-syndicalist. He joined the Industrial Workers of the World in 1922. He was a co-founder of the Libertarian Labor Review magazine, which was later re-named Anarcho-Syndicalist Review. Dolgoff was a member of libertarian groups and editor in the 1920s to1930s, and co-founded the Libertarian League in New York in 1954. Dolgoff was friends with Murray Bookchin, but he was opposed to Bookchin’s theory of Social Ecology. anarchistanarcho-syndicalistIndustrial Workers of the WorldAnarcho-Syndicalist ReviewLibertarian LeagueMurray BookchinSocial Ecology anarchistanarcho-syndicalistIndustrial Workers of the WorldAnarcho-Syndicalist ReviewLibertarian LeagueMurray BookchinSocial Ecology Daniel Guérin ( 古尔宁,1904-1988) was a French anarchist and author, best known for his work Anarchism: From Theory to Practice, as well as his collection No Gods No Masters: An Anthology of Anarchism in which he collected writings on the idea and movement it inspired. He is also known for his opposition to Nazism, Fascism, Colonialism and his revolutionary defense of free love and homosexuality (he was bisexual). Daniel Guérin ( 古尔宁,1904-1988) was a French anarchist and author, best known for his work Anarchism: From Theory to Practice, as well as his collection No Gods No Masters: An Anthology of Anarchism in which he collected writings on the idea and movement it inspired. He is also known for his opposition to Nazism, Fascism, Colonialism and his revolutionary defense of free love and homosexuality (he was bisexual).FrenchanarchistNazismFascism Colonialismfree love homosexualitybisexualFrenchanarchistNazismFascism Colonialismfree love homosexualitybisexual

Avram Noam Chomsky ( 乔姆斯基,1928-) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, political activist, author, and lecturer. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Since the 1960s, he has become known widely as a political dissident, an anarchist, and a libertarian socialist intellectual. Avram Noam Chomsky ( 乔姆斯基,1928-) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, political activist, author, and lecturer. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Since the 1960s, he has become known widely as a political dissident, an anarchist, and a libertarian socialist intellectual.cognitive scientistpolitical activistInstitute Professoremeritus linguisticsMassachusetts Institute of Technologypolitical dissident anarchistlibertarian socialistcognitive scientistpolitical activistInstitute Professoremeritus linguisticsMassachusetts Institute of Technologypolitical dissident anarchistlibertarian socialist Beginning with his opposition to the Vietnam War, Chomsky established himself as a prominent critic of US foreign and domestic policy. He is a self-declared adherent of libertarian socialism which he regards as “the proper and natural extension of classical liberalism into the era of advanced industrial society.” Beginning with his opposition to the Vietnam War, Chomsky established himself as a prominent critic of US foreign and domestic policy. He is a self-declared adherent of libertarian socialism which he regards as “the proper and natural extension of classical liberalism into the era of advanced industrial society.”opposition to the Vietnam Warlibertarian socialismclassical liberalismopposition to the Vietnam Warlibertarian socialismclassical liberalism Chomsky has stated that his “personal visions are fairly traditional anarchist ones, with origins in the Enlightenment and classical liberalism”. He is critical of the American capitalist system and big business, and describes himself as a libertarian socialist who sympathizes with anarcho-syndicalism. He is also critical of Leninist branches of socialism. Chomsky has stated that his “personal visions are fairly traditional anarchist ones, with origins in the Enlightenment and classical liberalism”. He is critical of the American capitalist system and big business, and describes himself as a libertarian socialist who sympathizes with anarcho-syndicalism. He is also critical of Leninist branches of socialism.libertarian socialistanarcho-syndicalismLeninistsocialismlibertarian socialistanarcho-syndicalismLeninistsocialism He thinks Power, unless justified, is inherently illegitimate; that there isn’t much difference between slavery, and renting one’s self to an owner, or “wage slavery”; that double standards in a foreign policy results in massive human rights violations. He thinks Power, unless justified, is inherently illegitimate; that there isn’t much difference between slavery, and renting one’s self to an owner, or “wage slavery”; that double standards in a foreign policy results in massive human rights violations.wage slaveryhuman rightswage slaveryhuman rights

Chapter Five Christian Democracy Introduction: 1. Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian principles to public policy.

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Chapter Five Christian Democracy Introduction: 1. Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian principles to public policy.

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Presentation on theme: "Chapter Five Christian Democracy Introduction: 1. Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian principles to public policy."— Presentation transcript:

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