1. Heredity and Evolution
Chapter 4
Heredity and Evolution

2. Chapter Outline The Genetic Principles Discovered by Mendel
Mendelian Inheritance in Humans
Non-Mendelian Inheritance
Genetic and Environmental Factors
Modern Evolutionary Theory

3. Chapter Outline
A Current Definition of Evolution Factors that Produce and Redistribute Variation
Natural Selection Acts on Variation
Review of Genetics and Evolutionary Factors
New Frontiers in Research: Molecular Applications in Forensic Anthropology

4. Selective Breeding
A practice whereby animal and plant breeders choose which animals will be allowed to mate based on traits (such as coat color, body size, shape of face) they hope to produce in offspring.
Animals that don’t have the desirable traits aren’t allowed to breed.

5. Genetic Principles Discovered by Mendel
Gregor Mendel ( ) laid down the basic principles of heredity.
He explored the ways physical traits could be expressed in plant hybrids.
A hybrid is the offspring of individuals that differ with regard to certain traits or certain aspects of genetic makeup.

6. Gregor Mendel
A portrait of Gregor Mendel.

7. Traits Mendel Studied: Peas

8. Results: One Trait at a Time

9. Principle of Segregation
Genes occur in pairs because chromosomes occur in pairs.
During gamete production, members of each gene pair separate so each gamete contains one member of a pair.
During fertilization, the full number of chromosomes is restored and members of a gene or allele pairs are reunited.

10. Dominance and Recessiveness
Recessive traits are not expressed in heterozygotes.
For a recessive allele to be expressed, there must be two copies of the allele.
Dominant traits are governed by an allele that can be expressed in the presence of another, allele.
Dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles.

11. Homozygous
Having the same allele at the same locus on both members of a pair of chromosomes.

12. Heterozygous
Having different alleles at the same locus on members of a pair of chromosomes.

13. Punnett square
1⁄4 of the plants can be expected to be homozygous tall (TT).
1/2 can be expected to be tall but will be heterozygous (Tt).
The remaining 1⁄4 are homozygous for the recessive “short” allele (tt).

14. Principle of Independent Assortment
The distribution of one pair of alleles into gametes does not influence the distribution of another pair.
The genes controlling different traits are inherited independently of one another.

15. Phenotype
The observable or detectable physical characteristics of an organism.
The detectable expressions of genotypes, frequently influenced by environmental factors.

16. Phenotypic Ratio
The proportion of one phenotype to other phenotypes in a group of organisms.
For example,Mendel observed that there were approximately three tall plants for every short plant in the F2 generation.
This is expressed as a phenotypic ratio of 3:1.

17. Question
Traits that have a range of phenotypic expressions and show a continuum of variation are termed
co-dominant.
polygenic.
polymorphic.
sex-linked.

18. Answer: b
Traits that have a range of phenotypic expressions and show a continuum of variation are termed polygenic.

19. Question
Genes exist in pairs in individuals; during the production of gametes, the pairs are separated so that a gamete has only one of each kind. This is known as the
principle of segregation.
principle of independent assortment.
mitosis.
unification theory.

20. Answer: a
Genes exist in pairs in individuals; during the production of gametes, the pairs are separated so that a gamete has only one of each kind. This is known as the principle of segregation.

21. Mendelian Traits
Characteristics that are influenced by alleles at only one genetic locus.
Examples include many blood types, such as ABO.
Many genetic disorders such as sickle-cell anemia and Tay-Sachs disease are also Mendelian traits.

22. Mendelian Inheritance in Humans
Over 4,500 human trains are known to be inherited according to Mendelian principles.
The human ABO blood system is an example of a simple Mendelian inheritance.
The A and B alleles are dominant to the O allele.
Neither the A or B allele are dominant to one another; They are codominant and both traits are expressed.

23. Results of Crosses When Traits Are Considered Simultaneously

24. Some Mendelian Traits in Humans: Dominant
Condition
Manifestations
Achondroplasia
Dwarfism due to growth defects involving the long bones of the arms and legs; trunk and head size usually normal.
Brachydactyly
Shortened fingers and toes.
Familial hyper-
cholesterolemia
Elevated cholesterol levels and cholesterol plaque deposition; a leading cause of heart disease, with death frequently occurring by middle age.

25. Some Mendelian Traits in Humans: Recessive
Condition
Manifestations
Cystic fibrosis
Among the most common genetic disorders among European Americans; abnormal secretions of the exocrine glands, with pronounced involvement of the pancreas; most patients develop obstructive lung disease.
Tay-Sachs disease
Most common among Ashkenazi Jews; degeneration of the nervous system beginning at about 6 months of age; lethal by age 2 or 3 years.

26. Question Mendel used the term dominant for
plants that were larger than others of the same variety.
a trait that prevented another trait from appearing.
a variety of pea plants that eliminated a weaker variety.
a trait that "skipped" a generation.

27. Answer: b
Mendel used the term dominant for a trait that prevented another trait from appearing.

28. Antigens Large molecules found on the surface of cells.
Several different loci govern various antigens on red and white blood cells.
Foreign antigens provoke an immune response.

29. Codominance The expression of two alleles in heterozygotes.
In this situation, neither allele is dominant or recessive so they both influence the phenotype.

30. ABO Genotypes and Associated Phenotypes
Antigens on
Red Blood Cells
ABO Blood Type (Phenotype)
AA, AO A
BB, BO B AB
A and B OO
None O

31. Pedigree Chart
A diagram showing family relationships; it’s used to trace the hereditary pattern of particular genetic traits.

32. Autosomal Dominant Trait
Inheritance of an autosomal dominant trait: a human pedigree for brachydactyly. How can individuals 5, 11, 14, 15, and 17 be unaffected?

33. Pattern of Inheritance of Autosomal Dominant Traits
(a) Diagram of possible gametes produced by one parent with brachydactyly and another with normal hands and fingers.
(b) Punnett square depicting possible genotypes in the offspring of one parent with brachydactyly (Bb) and one with normal hands and fingers (bb).

34. Partial Pedigree for Albinism
Individuals 6 and 7, children of unaffected parents, are affected. Four individuals are definitely unaffected carriers. Which ones are they?

35. An African Albino
An African albino. This young man has a greatly increased likelihood of developing skin cancer.

36. Phenotypically Normal Parents, Both Carriers of the Albinism Allele
Offspring:
Homozygous dominants (AA) with normal phenotype, 25%
Heterozygotes, (carriers) (Aa) with normal phenotype, 50%
Homozygous recessives (aa) with albinism, 25%.

37. Mendelian Disorders Inherited as X-Linked Recessive Traits
Condition
Manifestations
G-6-PD deficiency
Lack of an enzyme in red blood cells; produces severe anemia in the presence of certain foods and/or drugs.
Muscular dystrophy
One form; other forms can be inherited as autosomal recessives; progressive weakness and atrophy of muscles beginning in early childhood; continues to progress

38. Mendelian Disorders Inherited as X-Linked Recessive Traits
Condition
Manifestations
Red-green color blindness
Two separate forms, one involving the perception of red and the other affecting the perception of green.
Lesch-Nyhan
Impaired motor development noticeable by 5 months; progressive motor impairment, disease diminished kidney function, self-mutilation, and early death.

39. Mendelian Disorders Inherited as X-Linked Recessive Traits
Condition
Manifestations
Hemophilia
In hemophilia A, a clotting factor is missing; hemophilia B is caused by a defective clotting factor. Both produce abnormal internal and external bleeding from minor injuries; severe pain is a frequent accompaniment; without treatment, death usually occurs before adulthood.

40. Mendelian Disorders Inherited as X-Linked Recessive Traits
Condition
Manifestations
Ichthyosis
A skin condition due to lack of an enzyme; characterized by scaly, brown lesions on the extremities and trunk. In the past, people with this condition were sometimes exhibited in circuses and sideshows as “the alligator man.”

41. Polygenic Inheritance
Polygenic traits are continuous traits governed by alleles at more than one genetic locus.
Continuous traits show gradations, there is a series of measurable intermediate forms between two extremes.
Skin color is a common example of a polygenic trait it is governed by 6 loci and at least 12 alleles.

42. Discontinuous Distribution of Mendelian Traits
Shows the discontinuous distribution of ABO blood type in a hypothetical population.
The expression of the trait is described in terms of frequencies.

43. Continuous Expression of a Polygenic Trait
Represents the continuous expression of height in a large group of people.

44. Height
Male students arranged according to height. The most common height is 70 inches, which is the mean, or average, for this group.

45. Pleiotropy
Pleiotropy is a situation where a single gene influences more than one phenotypic expression.
Example: The autosomal recessive disorder phenylketonuria (PKU).
Individuals who are homozygous for the PKU allele don’t produce phenylketonurase, the enzyme involved in the conversion of the amino acid phenylalanine to the amino acid, tyrosine.

47. Mitochondrial Inheritance
All cells contain mitochondria that convert energy into a form that can be used by the cell.
Each mitochondrion contains several copies of a ring-shaped DNA molecule, or chromosome.
Animals of both sexes inherit their mtDNA, and all mitochondrial traits, from their mothers.
All the variation in mtDNA is caused by mutation.

48. Heredity and Evolution
Evolution works at four levels:
Molecular
Cellular
Individual
Population
The levels reflect different aspects of evolution.

49. The Modern Synthesis Evolution is a two-stage process:
The production and redistribution of variation (inherited differences between individuals).
Natural selection acting on this variation (whereby inherited differences, or variation, among individuals differentially affect their ability to reproduce successfully).

50. A Current Definition Of Evolution
From a modern genetic perspective, we define evolution as a change in allele frequency from one generation to the next.
Allele frequencies are indicators of the genetic makeup of an interbreeding group of individuals known as a population.

51. Mutation Mutation is a molecular alteration in genetic material:
For a mutation to have evolutionary significance it must occur in a gamete (sex cell).
Such mutations will be carried on one of the individual's chromosomes.
During meiosis the chromosome carrying the mutation will assort giving a 50% chance of passing the allele to an offspring.

52. Gene Flow Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations.
If individuals move temporarily and mate in the new population (leaving a genetic contribution), they don’t necessarily remain in the population.
Example: The offspring of U.S. soldiers and Vietnamese women represent gene flow, even though the fathers returned to their native population.

53. Genetic Drift Genetic drift is directly related to population size.
Genetic drift occurs when some individuals contribute a disproportionate share of genes to succeeding generations.
Drift may also occur solely because the population is small:
Alleles with low frequencies may simply not be passed on to offspring, so they eventually disappear from the population.

54. Genetic Drift

55. Founder Effect
Genetic drift in which allele frequencies are altered in small populations that are taken from, or are remnants of, larger populations.
A new population will be established, and as long as mates are chosen only within this population, all the members will be descended from the founders.
An allele that was rare in the founders’ parent population but is carried by even one of founders can become common.

56. Question
When alleles are introduced into a population from another population, this is known as
genetic drift.
gene flow/migration.
founder effect.
bottleneck effect.

57. Answer: b
When alleles are introduced into a population from another population, this is known as gene flow/migration.

58. Recombination
In sexually reproducing species both parents contribute genes to offspring.
The genetic information is reshuffled every generation.
Recombination doesn’t change allele frequencies, however, it does produce different combinations of genes that natural selection may be able to act on.

59. Natural Selection
Natural selection provides directional change in allele frequency relative to specific environmental factors.
If the environment changes, selection pressures also change.
If there are long-term environmental changes in a consistent direction, then allele frequencies should also shift gradually each generation.

60. Genetic Variation
Cheetahs, like many other species, have passed through a genetic bottleneck.
As a species, they have little genetic variation.

61. Sickle-cell Distribution in the Old World

62. Life Cycle of the Parasite That Causes Malaria

63. Levels of Organization in the Evolutionary Process
Factor
Level
Evolutionary Process
Mutation
DNA
Storage of genetic information; ability to replicate; influences phenotype by production of proteins
Chromosomes
A vehicle for packaging and transmitting DNA

64. Levels of Organization in the Evolutionary Process
Factor
Level
Evolutionary Process
Recombination
(sex cells only)
Cell
Basic unit of life, contains chromosomes, divides for growth and production of sex cells
Natural selection
Organism
The unit that reproduces and which we observe for phenotypic traits
Drift, gene flow
Population
Changes in allele frequencies between generations