2. Lecture overview Importance of investigating reported outbreaksImportance of investigating reported outbreaks Steps in the investigation of an outbreakSteps in the investigation of an outbreak Describe epidemic curvesDescribe epidemic curves

3. Outbreak investigations, an important and challenging component of epidemiology and public health, can help identify the source of ongoing outbreaks and prevent additional cases. Even when an outbreak is over, a thorough epidemiologic and environmental investigation often can increase our knowledge of a given disease and prevent future outbreaks. Finally, outbreak investigations provide epidemiologic training and foster cooperation between the clinical and public health communities.” “Outbreak investigations, an important and challenging component of epidemiology and public health, can help identify the source of ongoing outbreaks and prevent additional cases. Even when an outbreak is over, a thorough epidemiologic and environmental investigation often can increase our knowledge of a given disease and prevent future outbreaks. Finally, outbreak investigations provide epidemiologic training and foster cooperation between the clinical and public health communities.” Outbreak Investigations—A Perspective Arthur L. Reingold University of California, Berkeley Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol. 4, No. 1

4. Why Investigate Possible Outbreaks ? Control/preventionControl/prevention Research opportunitiesResearch opportunities TrainingTraining Public, political, or legal concernsPublic, political, or legal concerns

5. http://www.phppo.cdc.gov/phtn/catalog/pdf-file/LESSON6.pdf

7. “Once a decision is made to investigate an outbreak, three types of activities are generally involved The epidemiologic investigation. The environmental investigation. The interaction with the public, the press, and, in many instances, the legal system.” Outbreak Investigations—A Perspective Arthur L. Reingold University of California, Berkeley, California, USA Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol. 4, No. 1

8. Step 1: Prepare for Fieldwork InvestigationInvestigation AdministrationAdministration ConsultationConsultation

9. Step 2: Establishing the Existence of an Outbreak Is this an epidemic or cluster of cases?Is this an epidemic or cluster of cases? Does the observed number exceed the expected number of cases?Does the observed number exceed the expected number of cases?

10. For a notifiable disease use health department surveillance records. For other diseases and conditions, find existing data locally—hospital discharge records, mortality statistics, cancer or birth defect registries. If local data are not available, apply rates from neighboring cities or national data, or, alternatively, conduct a telephone survey of physicians to determine whether they have seen more cases of the disease than usual. Finally, conduct a survey of the community to establish the background or historical level of disease.

11. Step 3: Verifying the Diagnosis to ensure that the problem has been properly diagnosed to rule out laboratory error as the basis for the increase in diagnosed cases. summarize the clinical findings with frequency distributions

12. Why? Diseases can be misdiagnosed. Case may not be actual case, but rather suspected case. Information from non-cases must be excluded from the case information used to confirm the presence or absence of an epidemic.

13. Step 4a: Establishing a Case Definition A case definition is a standard set of criteria for deciding whether an individual should be classified as having the health condition of interest. A case definition includes clinical criteria and--particularly in the setting of an outbreak investigation--restrictions by time, place and person. Apply them consistently and without bias to all persons under investigation.

14. To be classified as confirmed, a case usually must have laboratory verification. A case classified as probable usually has typical clinical features of the disease without laboratory confirmation. A case classified as possible usually has fewer of the typical clinical features.

15. Early in an investigation, investigators often use a sensitive or “loose” case definition which includes confirmed, probable, and even possible cases. Later on, when hypotheses have come into sharper focus, the investigator may “tighten” the case definition by dropping the possible category.

16. Step 4b: Identifying and Counting Cases Direct case finding at health care facilities where the diagnosis is likely to be made: physicians, clinics, hospitals, and laboratories. In some outbreaks, public health officials may decide to alert the public directly, usually through the local media. Identifying contacts to case-patients. Conduct a survey of the entire population.

17. The following items of information should be collected about every case: identifying information demographic information clinical information risk factor information reporter information

18. Develop a line listing:

20. Step 5: Performing Descriptive Epidemiology Characterize an outbreak by time, place, and person.

21. Why? Provide a comprehensive description of an outbreak by portraying : - its trend over time, - its geographic extent (place), and - the populations (persons) affected by disease. Assess description of the outbreak to develop causal hypotheses ( in light of what is known ) : - usual source, - mode of transmission, - risk factors and - populations affected, etc.

22. Time What is the exact period of the outbreak?What is the exact period of the outbreak? What is the probable period of exposure?What is the probable period of exposure? Is the outbreak likely common source or propagated?Is the outbreak likely common source or propagated?

23. Place What is the most significant geographic distribution of cases?What is the most significant geographic distribution of cases? Place of residence? Workplace? Place of residence? Workplace? What are the attack rates?What are the attack rates?

24. Person What were the age and gender specific attack rates?What were the age and gender specific attack rates? What age and gender groups are at highest and lowest risk of illness?What age and gender groups are at highest and lowest risk of illness? In what other ways do the characteristics of the cases differ significantly from those of the general population?In what other ways do the characteristics of the cases differ significantly from those of the general population?

25. Interpreting an epidemic curve Interpretation of the epidemic curve can prove to be very helpful in determining the source of the outbreak. Through review of the different patterns illustrated in an epidemic curve, it is possible to hypothesize:Interpretation of the epidemic curve can prove to be very helpful in determining the source of the outbreak. Through review of the different patterns illustrated in an epidemic curve, it is possible to hypothesize: how an epidemic spread throughout a populationhow an epidemic spread throughout a population at what point you are in an epidemicat what point you are in an epidemic the diagnosis of the disease by establishing the potential incubation periodthe diagnosis of the disease by establishing the potential incubation period

26. When analyzing an epidemic curve, it is important to consider the following factors When analyzing an epidemic curve, it is important to consider the following factors to assist in interpreting an outbreak: to assist in interpreting an outbreak: the overall pattern of the epidemicthe overall pattern of the epidemic the time period when the persons were exposedthe time period when the persons were exposed if there any outliersif there any outliers

27. Point Source In a point source epidemic, persons are exposed to the same exposure over a limited, defined period of time, usually within one incubation period. The shape of this curve commonly rises rapidly and contains a definite peak at the top, followed by a gradual decline.In a point source epidemic, persons are exposed to the same exposure over a limited, defined period of time, usually within one incubation period. The shape of this curve commonly rises rapidly and contains a definite peak at the top, followed by a gradual decline.

28. The graph above illustrates an outbreak of gastrointestinal illness from a single exposure. While there are outliers to this dataset, it is clear that there is an outbreak over a limited period of time, and the shape of the curve is characteristic of one source of exposure

29. Continuous Common Source exposure to the source is prolonged over an extended period of time, exposure to the source is prolonged over an extended period of time, may occur over more than one incubation period, may occur over more than one incubation period, The down slope of the curve may be very sharp if the common source is removed, or The down slope of the curve may be very sharp if the common source is removed, or gradual if the outbreak is allowed to exhaust itself. gradual if the outbreak is allowed to exhaust itself.

30. The data above is from the well-known outbreak of cholera in London that was investigated by the "father of epidemiology," John Snow. Cholera spread from a water source for an extended period of time. Note that the typical incubation period for cholera is 1--3 days that the duration of this outbreak was more than 1 month.

31. Propagated (Progressive Source) A propagated (progressive source) epidemic occurs when :A propagated (progressive source) epidemic occurs when : - a case of disease serves as a source of infection, - a case of disease serves as a source of infection, - subsequent cases, in turn, serve as sources for later cases. - subsequent cases, in turn, serve as sources for later cases. - The shape of the curve usually contains a series of successively larger peaks, - The shape of the curve usually contains a series of successively larger peaks, ( reflecting the increasing number of cases caused by person-to-person contact ), ( reflecting the increasing number of cases caused by person-to-person contact ), - This pattern may continue until the pool of susceptible is exhausted or control measures are implemented. - This pattern may continue until the pool of susceptible is exhausted or control measures are implemented.

32. The graph above illustrates an outbreak of measles. The graph shows a single common source (the index case), and the cases appear to increase exponentially. Measles is caused by person-to-person contact. Its incubation period is typically 10 days but may be 7--18 days.

33. Common Source Questions Is the outbreak from a single source or common source?Is the outbreak from a single source or common source? Does the disease spread from person to person?Does the disease spread from person to person? If there is a continued exposure to a single source?If there is a continued exposure to a single source? Adapted from: Timmreck: An Introduction to Epidemiology

34. Propagated Source Questions Propagated Source Questions: Is the outbreak from multiple sources or exposures?Is the outbreak from multiple sources or exposures? Is the outbreak airborne, behaviorally or chemically caused, and does it involve multiple events?Is the outbreak airborne, behaviorally or chemically caused, and does it involve multiple events? Are the sources of infection from inapparent sources?Are the sources of infection from inapparent sources? Is there a vector or animal reservoir involved?Is there a vector or animal reservoir involved? Adapted from: Timmreck: An Introduction to Epidemiology

35. Duration of an epidemic Is determined by: Is determined by: –The number of susceptible persons who are exposed to a source of infection and become infected. –Period of time over which susceptible persons are exposed to the source. –Minimum and maximum incubation periods for the disease.

36. Step 6: Developing Hypotheses All aspects of the investigation should be addressed: All aspects of the investigation should be addressed: - the source of the agent, - the source of the agent, - the mode of transmission, (vehicle &vector), - the mode of transmission, (vehicle &vector), - the exposures that caused the disease, - the exposures that caused the disease, - any additional time, person, and place factors. - any additional time, person, and place factors.

37. First, consider what you know about the disease itself: First, consider what you know about the disease itself: What is the agent’s usual reservoir? What is the agent’s usual reservoir? How is it usually transmitted? How is it usually transmitted? What vehicles are commonly implicated? What vehicles are commonly implicated? What are the known risk factors? What are the known risk factors? In other words, simply by becoming familiar with the disease, you can, at the very least, “round up the usual suspects.” In other words, simply by becoming familiar with the disease, you can, at the very least, “round up the usual suspects.”

38. Another useful way you can generate hypotheses is to talk to a few of the case-patients,Another useful way you can generate hypotheses is to talk to a few of the case-patients, In addition, investigators have sometimes found it useful to visit the homes of case-patients and look through their refrigerators and shelves for clues.In addition, investigators have sometimes found it useful to visit the homes of case-patients and look through their refrigerators and shelves for clues.

39. Step 7: Evaluating Hypotheses Either by comparing the hypotheses with the established facts, orEither by comparing the hypotheses with the established facts, or by using analytic epidemiology to quantify relationships and explore the role of chance. by using analytic epidemiology to quantify relationships and explore the role of chance.

40. Step 8: Refining Hypotheses and Executing Additional Studies Epidemiologic studiesEpidemiologic studies Laboratory and environmental studiesLaboratory and environmental studies

41. Retrospective cohort FoodateDid not eat IllwellARIllwellARRR meat2917631712591.07 spinach 2617602012620.97 potato2314622314621.00 salad1311542819600.90 Ice cream 431180318145.71

42. Case control ExposureCaseControlTotal Ate at A restaurant Yes303666 No107080 Total40106146 OR= (70 x 30) / (10 x36) = 5.83

43. Step 9: Implementing Control and Prevention Measures Aim to apply control measures at the weak link or links in the chain of infection.Aim to apply control measures at the weak link or links in the chain of infection.

44. An outbreak might be controlled by : - destroying contaminated foods, - destroying contaminated foods, - sterilizing contaminated water, or - destroying mosquito breeding - sterilizing contaminated water, or - destroying mosquito breeding sites. sites. “ An infectious food handler could be removed from the job and treated.”

45. In other situations, control measures might be aimed at: In other situations, control measures might be aimed at: - interrupting transmission or - interrupting transmission or - reducing the exposure - reducing the exposure (such as having nursing home residents with a particular infection “cohorted,” or put together in a separate area to prevent transmission to others). (such as having nursing home residents with a particular infection “cohorted,” or put together in a separate area to prevent transmission to others).

46. In some outbreaks, control measures might be directed at: - reducing the susceptibility of the host, - reducing the susceptibility of the host, - Immunization, - Immunization, - chemoprophylaxis for travelers. - chemoprophylaxis for travelers.

47. Step 10: Communicating the Findings 1- an oral briefing for local authorities and and 2- a written scientific report 2- a written scientific report.

48. The report should include: Summary of relevant data, methods of collection, performed analysis and interpretations.Summary of relevant data, methods of collection, performed analysis and interpretations. Describe implemented preventive and control measures.Describe implemented preventive and control measures. Describe effectiveness of control measures.Describe effectiveness of control measures. Describe other impacts relevant to prevention and control.Describe other impacts relevant to prevention and control. Make recommendations regarding future surveillance and control.Make recommendations regarding future surveillance and control. Distribute report to others in disease control programs.Distribute report to others in disease control programs.

49. The report: A record of performance and a document for potential legal issues. Reference if the health department encounters a similar situation in the future. Broader purpose for contributing to the knowledge base of epidemiology and public health.