1. Stellar Evolution Chapter 12

2. This chapter is the heart of any discussion of astronomy. Previous chapters showed how astronomers make observations with telescopes and how they analyze their observations to find the luminosity, diameter, and mass of stars. All of that aims at understanding what stars are. This is the middle of three chapters that tell the story of stars. The preceding chapter told us how stars form, and the next chapter tells us how stars die. This chapter is the heart of the story—how stars live. As always, we accept nothing at face value. We expect theory to be supported by evidence. We expect carefully constructed models to help us understand the structure inside stars. In short, we exercise our critical faculties Guidepost

3. and analyze the story of stellar evolution rather than merely accepting it. After this chapter, we will know how stars work, and we will be ready to study the rest of the universe, from galaxies that contain billions of stars to the planets that form around individual stars. Guidepost (continued)

4. The structure and evolution of a star is determined by the laws of Main Sequence Stars Hydrostatic equilibrium Energy transport Conservation of mass Conservation of energy A star’s mass (and chemical composition) completely determines its properties. That’s why stars initially all line up along the main sequence.

5. Maximum Masses of Main-Sequence Stars  Carinae (Eta Carinae) a) More massive clouds fragment into smaller pieces during star formation. b) Very massive stars lose mass in strong stellar winds Example: η Carinae: Binary system of a 60 M sun and 70 M sun star. Dramatic mass loss - major eruption in 1843 created double lobes. M max = 100 solar masses

6. Minimum Mass of Main-Sequence Stars M min = 0.08 M sun At masses below 0.08 M sun, gas doesn’t get hot enough to ignite thermonuclear fusion. These are called Brown Dwarfs Gliese 229B

7. Brown Dwarfs Hard to find because they are very faint and cool; emit mostly in the infrared. Many have been detected in star forming regions like the Orion Nebula.

8. Evolution on the Main Sequence (1) Zero-Age Main Sequence (ZAMS) Main-Sequence stars live by fusing hydrogen (H) into helium (He). A finite supply of hydrogen means a finite life time. MS evolution

9. Evolution on the Main Sequence (2) Luminosity L = M 3.5 A star’s life time T = energy reservoir / luminosity T = M/L = 1/M 2.5 Energy reservoir = M Massive stars have short lives!

10. Evolution off the Main Sequence: Expansion into a Red Giant When hydrogen (H) in the core is completely converted to helium (He), fusion stops. H burning continues in a shell around the core. He core and H burning shell produce more energy than needed for pressure support Expansion and cooling of the outer layers of the star produces a Red Giant

11. Expansion onto the Giant Branch Expansion and surface cooling during the phase of an inactive He core and a H burning shell Sun will expand beyond Earth’s orbit!

12. Red Giant Evolution 4 H → He He Hydrogen burning shell keeps dumping helium onto the core. He-core gets denser and hotter until the next stage of nuclear burning can begin in the core.

13. Helium Fusion He nuclei can fuse to build heavier elements like carbon and oxygen When pressure and temperature in the He core become high enough,

14. Fusion Into Heavier Elements Fusion into heavier elements (than carbon and oxygen) requires very high temperatures and occurs only in massive stars (more than 8 solar masses). These stars fuse: He  C and O then C  Ne, Na, Mg, O then Ne  O, Mg then O  Si, S, P then Si  Fe, Co, Ni….all in the final 0.00008 of it’s life!

15. Evidence for Stellar Evolution: Star Clusters Stars in a star cluster all have approximately the same age! More massive stars evolve more quickly than less massive ones. If you put all the stars of a star cluster on a HR diagram, the most massive stars (upper left) will be missing!

16. HR Diagram of a Star Cluster

17. Example: HR diagram of the star cluster M 55 High-mass stars evolved onto the giant branch Low-mass stars still on the main sequence Turn-off point

18. Estimating the Age of a Cluster The lower on the MS the turn-off point, the older the cluster.

19. Evidence for Stellar Evolution: Variable Stars Some stars show brightness variations not caused by eclipsing in binary systems. Most important example:  Cephei Light curve of  Cephei

20. Cepheid Variables: The Period-Luminosity Relation The variability period of a Cepheid variable is correlated with its luminosity. => Measuring a Cepheid’s period, we can determine its absolute magnitude! The more luminous it is, the more slowly it pulsates.

21. Cepheid Distance Measurements Comparing absolute and apparent magnitudes of Cepheids, we can measure their distances (using the 1/d 2 law)! The Cepheid distance measurements were the first distance determinations that worked out to distances beyond our Milky Way! Cepheids are up to ~ 40,000 times more luminous than our sun => can be identified in other galaxies.

22. Pulsating Variables: The Valve Mechanism Partial He ionization zone is opaque and absorbs more energy than necessary to balance the weight from higher layers. => Expansion Upon expansion, partial He ionization zone becomes more transparent, absorbs less energy => weight from higher layers pushes it back inward. => Contraction. Upon compression, partial He ionization zone becomes more opaque again, absorbs more energy than needed for equilibrium => Expansion

23. Period Changes in Variable Stars Periods of some Variables are not constant over time because of stellar evolution.  Another piece of evidence for stellar evolution.

24. conservation of mass law conservation of energy law stellar model brown dwarf zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) degenerate matter triple alpha process helium flash open cluster globular cluster turnoff point horizontal branch variable star intrinsic variable Cepheid variable star RR Lyrae variable star period–luminosity relation instability strip New Terms