1. The Long 19th Century

2. Palmer ...’a vicious circle was set endlessly revolving’
Liberal spill over…
Europe after the French Revolution experiences continued turmoil…
New ‘liberal’ policies – refining its meaning
Nationalist- Independence Movements
Continued discontent among the lower classes
Continued calls for political reform
English legislation and a realigning of political parties
Palmer ...’a vicious circle was set endlessly revolving’

3. Evolution of Liberal Ideology
Pre 1789: John Locke, Adam Smith – ‘Enlightenment-like’
Post 1815: “types of liberalism”
Classical English Liberalism
New moderate French Liberalism
Liberalism as expressed through right to self-government – independence movements
Post 1848:
More radical after the failure of the revolutions (emergence of Marxist philosophy)

4. Evolution of Liberalism
Liberalism after 1848:
Marxism
Socialism
Original Liberalism Bourgeoisie Locke
British Model
Conservatism
Monarchy
Aristocracy
Liberalism after 1789: Democratic reform Republican Government

5. Early 19th Century

6. British Liberalism John Stuart Mill : Utilitarianism, On Liberty
Women’s suffrage, graduated income tax
Political Parties (Whigs & Tories)
Tories (liberal reform) Robert Peel, George Canning
Catholic Emancipation Act 1829
Repeal of the Corn Laws 1846 (anti-mercantilist)
Factory Act 1833, Slavery Abolished
Whig (political reform) -Rotten Boroughs, Voting Rights – Reform Bill 1832 (1 of 6 males)
Chartists (Charter of 1838) universal male suffrage, secret ballot, 1 person, 1 vote (Populists of England)

7. Potato Famine 1847 – Black ’47 Peak
1841 census recorded an Irish population of 8.2 million.
By 1851 this figure had been reduced to 6.5 million

8. Revolutionary Movements 1820s

9. Revolutionary Movements 1830s

10. The Eastern Question
What will become of the Ottoman Empire?

11. Bourbon Restoration
1830

12. Challenges to early 18th C Liberalism
The Conservative upper class
Too many changes
The Lower urban working classes
Not enough changes
Organized religions
Too secular

13. Revolution & the birth of the Nation State

14. Why 1848?
A.J.P. Taylor, "history reached its turning point and failed to turn".
Hans Rothfels, "Failure or not, 1848 was a genuine turning point. The year 1850 no more restored 1847 than 1815 had returned to 1788"
Lewis Namier, “1848 remains a seed-plot of history. It crystallized ideas and projected the pattern of things to come; it determined the course of the following century."

16. France 1848
Louis Phillipe’s government ignored the needs and demands of the workers in the cities.
February 1848
3 days of fighting
King abdicated
December 1848:
Louis Napoleon elected
Second Republic
(Napoleon III –nephew)
Napoleonic Legend

17. June Days

18. Napoleonic Legacy Arc de Triomphe Started during Napoleonic Rule 1808
Completed under Louis Philippe

19. "When France sneezes Europe catches a cold".
Metternich

20. Compare and Contrast political liberalism with political conservatism in the first half of the nineteenth century in Europe.

21. Springtime of the People Völkerfrühling
Revolutions of 1848

23. Austria 1848 Hapsburgs @ Vienna
Ethnic minorities (Hungarians, Slavs, Czechs, Italian, Serbs, Croats)
Serfdom, feudal order
Authoritarian rule, no liberal institutions
Metternich dismissed by Hapsburgs, fled the country
Series of Rebellions throughout empire
Vienna: abolition of serfdom
Bohemia: (Prague Conference – Panslavism)
Hungary: Nationalist Movement

24. Slavic Nationalism
"The Slavs ask nothing but justice; they rest upon moral force only....It is only by struggle that we pass from slavery to liberty. Let us therefore be victors, and we shall be free in a free nation, or let us die with honour, and glory will follow us to the grave."
Pavel Jozef Šafárik

26. 1815

27. German Confederation, 1848
Liberals demanded a constitutional government & a union of German states (Nationalist movement)
Frankfurt Parliament (1848)
Called for elections to a constituent assembly for purposes of unification
Sought war to annex Schleswig & Holstein
Presented Constitution & Invited Prussian Frederick William to serve as King
Humiliation of Olmutz: Austria demanded Prussian allegiance to German Confederation (German Dualism)

29. Why did Frederick William reject offer?
There is no power on earth that can succeed in making me transform the natural relationship between prince and people ... into a constitutional relationship, and I never will permit a written sheet of paper to come between our God in heaven and this land ... to rule us with its paragraphs and supplant the old, sacred loyalty."

30. New Toughness of Mind Palmer
Failure of 1848
Idealism and romanticism discredited
A return to realism, science, skepticism
Positivism – August Comte (sociology)
Emergence of Marxist Communism (as a philosophy – not a reality)
Realpolitik: politics of reality
Follow practical interests

31. From France and across the central and southern portions of the continent, proponents of nationalism vigorously pushed their agendas
Nationalism: But what did nationalism mean to people in the nineteenth century?

32. Nationalism: Early Stirrings… prior to 1848
Revolutionary!
Rulers throughout Europe believed that nationalism would be a destabilizing force in existing governments-Therefore, they did all they could to crush nationalist sentiments within their own domains and sometimes helped their neighbors put down nationalist uprisings

33. Nationalism: after 1848 A more practical approach developed
More Machiavellian than romantic
Realpolitik
Germany – Bismarck’s Blood and iron
Italy – Cavour
Turning Point: Crimean War ended Concert System

34. Crimean War
Russia wanted further breakdown of Ottoman territories (clash of liberal nationalism and conservative nationalism)
Under pretext of protection of Christians in Near East (traditionally role of France)
Russia
Ottoman
France
Britain
Piedmont
CRIMEA
PENINSULA
Austria (protect Balkans)

36. Charge of the Light Brigade Alfred, Lord Tennyson
Florence Nightingale
"Forward, the Light Brigade!" Was there a man dismay'd? Not tho' the soldier knew Someone had blunder'd: Theirs not to make reply, Theirs not to reason why, Theirs but to do and die: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred.
Battle of Balaclava

37. Technology
Photographs
Telegraphs

38. Impact of the Crimean War
Weakened the authority of several rulers (Russia and Austria specifically weakened)
undermined the existing balance of power system in Europe (Prussia & Italy especially wanted change)
strained international relations so much that rulers would no longer come to the aid of a neighbor or friend in times of crisis (end of concert system)
1860s & 1870s see rebirth of nationalist sentiment
when nationalist movements arose again in Europe in the 1860s and 1870s, they found much more fertile ground than they had twenty to thirty years earlier

39. Italian Unification
Risorgimento

40. Kingdom of Two Sicilies
Sardinia- Piedmont ruled by House of Savoy (Victor Emmanuel II)
Naples ruled by Bourbon
Papal States possession of the Roman See
Venetia & Lombardy possession of Austria
North Central Italy were Duchies of:
Tuscany Modena Parma
Venetia
Sardinia-
Piedmont
Lombardy
Papal States
Naples
Kingdom of Two Sicilies

41. Italian Unification
Early Leaders: Mazzini, Pius IX (until Syllabus of Errors)
Count Cavour Sardinia-Piedmont (NW) - Realpolitik
Prime minister, editor of Il Risorgimento (newspaper)
Built a liberal and economically sound state (railroads, docks, agricultural improvements)
Curtailed the influence of the Church (abolish church courts)
Sought unification of Northern and Central Italy
Joined Crimean War
Plombieres 1859 – French Promise of support in war with Austria
Provoked war with Austria (1859:Franco-Austrian War)

42. Italian Unification By 1860 – the North Unified
Franco-Austrian War settlement
Lombardy to Piedmont
Plebiscite: Tuscany, Modena, Parma to Piedmont
In the South…Armed expedition
Giuseppe Garibaldi & Red Shirts (1,150)
Landed in Sicily, moved to Mainland
Two Sicilies collapsed (Bourbons)
Made move to Rome, agreed to endorse King Victor Emmanuel II
Plebicites (except Rome)

43. Italian Unification First Parliament of a united Italy in 1861
Excludes Venetia, Rome
Venetia added 1866 as result of Austro-Prussian War
Rome annexed in 1870 after withdrawal of French troops

45. German Unification

47. German Unification: Background
Napoleonic Germany – National Awakening
Intellectual Romantic thinkers
Herder: Volk or Volksgeist (Zeitgeist (zeit time + geist spirit)
Stressed differences among nations
Cultural nationalism
Suspicious of anything that might corrupt the purity of Volk
Politically astute and aware of the paternalistic nature of German government
Creating a German identity
Grimm Fair Tales (study of languages)
Hegelian Dialectic: history is a process.
The fragmentation of Germany ultimately bred a unified Germany

48. German Unification: Background
After 1815: Prussia emerged as leading German State
Zollverein: customs union included most of Germany except Austria and Bavaria
Debate…
Grossdeutsch plan: unified Germany including Prussia & Austria
Kleindeutsche plan: unified Germany excluding Austria

50. Realpolitik
The position of Prussia in Germany will not be determined by its liberalism but by its power ... Prussia must concentrate its strength and hold it for the favourable moment, which has already come and gone several times. Since the treaties of Vienna, our frontiers have been ill-designed for a healthy body politic. Not through speeches and majority decisions will the great questions of the day be decided - that was the great mistake of 1848 and but by iron and blood.

51. German Unification: Bismarck
Junker heritage
1862: Chief Minister
Prussian loyalties, not German
Constitutional Crisis
“Gap theory” Lückentheorie – favor with King
Conservative

52. Realpolitik: Blood & Iron
1864: Danish – German War
Prussia & Austria defeated Denmark and gained both Schleswig and Holstein
1866: Austro-Prussian War (7 Weeks War)
Prussia defeated Austria and alliance of German states to obtain Holstein
Annexed Schleswig, Holstein, Frankfurt, Hanover, Nassau
1867 North German Confederation
Excluded Austria & German states south of the Main River
Creation of Reichstag & liberal reforms (universal male suffrage) Prussian King is head of state

53. 1870 Franco- Prussian War Causes
Spanish Insurrection – invited Hohenzollern (Leopold II) to Spanish throne - declined
Ems Dispatch – French required Prussians to never accept invite
Prussian King had been insulted
Napoleon III declared war on Prussia
Outcome
Two months – Napoleon captured, gov’t collapsed
Paris Constituent governments (Paris Commune) declared Third Republic, continued fight
January 1871: Hall of Mirrors Bismarck declared the German Empire
Last German States (except Austria) joined Prussia
Annexed Alsace-Lorraine

54.          Kingdom of Prussia in          Annexations after the Seven Weeks War of          Extensions towards forming the North German Confederation          Other Germanic territories agree to the formation of a Second German Empire after the Franco-Prussian War of

55. Consolidation… 1815: German Confederation 1848: Frankfurt Assembly
39 States
1848: Frankfurt Assembly
Great Germans
Little Germans
1867: North German Confederation
Prussia & 21 other states
Austria & southern states excluded
1871: German Empire
Remaining German states and Alsace-Lorraine

56. Europe 1871 Consider also, world events… American Civil War
Meiji Restoration
Large powerful Nation States, with at least the appearance of liberal institutions…
What will be there influence on future world events??