1. Optical Encoders, Laser Interferometer, LVDT
Rushi Vyas
Xiaoyu Ding
Lei Yang

2. Outline Optical Encoders: Theory and applications
Rushi Vyas
Outline
Optical Encoders: Theory and applications
Fundamental Components
Theory
Types of optical encoders
Quadrature
Errors
Applications

3. Rushi Vyas
What are Encoders
An accessory to a mechanical device that translates mechanical motion into a measurable electrical signal Digital or Analog (preferably digital).
Optical Encoders
Use light & photosensors to produce digital code
Most popular type of encoder.
Can be linear or rotary.

4. Optical Encoders: Components
Rushi Vyas
Optical Encoders: Components
Code Disk: Used to produce different light patterns on a photo detector assembly from a stationary light source.
Code Disk: Determines the Optical Encoder type.

5. Optical Encoders: Components
Rushi Vyas
Optical Encoders: Components
Light source(s)
LEDs or IR LEDs provide light source.
Light is collimated using a lens to make the beams parallel.
Photodetector(s)
Either Photodiodes or Phototransistors.
Opaque disk (Code Disk)
One or more “tracks” with slits to allow light to pass through.

6. Optical Encoders: Theory
Rushi Vyas
Optical Encoders: Theory
Code Disk
LED
Photo-sensor

7. Optical Encoder Types Lab 3
Rushi Vyas
Optical Encoder Types
Incremental Encoders: Mechanical motion computed by measuring consecutive “on” states.
Absolute Encoders: Digital data produced by code disk, which carries position information.
Incremental Encoder code Disk
Absolute Encoder code Disk
Lab 3

8. Standard Binary Encoding
Rushi Vyas
Standard Binary Encoding
Angle
Binary
Decimal
0-45
000
45-90
001 1
90-135
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7

9. Problem with Binary Code
Rushi Vyas
Problem with Binary Code
Angle
Binary
Decimal
0-45
000
45-90
001 1
90-135
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7
One angle shift results in multiple bit changes.
Example: 1 => 2
001 (start at 1)
000 (turn off bit 0)
010 (turn on bit 1)

10. Gray Encoding Notice only 1 bit has to be changed for all transitions.
Rushi Vyas
Gray Encoding
Angle
Binary
Decimal
0-45
000
45-90
001 1
90-135
011 2
010 3
110 4
111 5
101 6
100 7
Notice only 1 bit has to be changed for all transitions.

11. Quadrature ❖ Quadrature describes two signals 90° out of phase
Rushi Vyas
Quadrature
❖ Quadrature describes two signals 90° out of phase
❖ Used to determine direction of measurement
❖ Only two directions possible, A leads B or B leads A

12. Rushi Vyas
Quadrature
An incremental rotary encoder, also known as a quadrature encoder or a relative rotary encoder, has two outputs called quadrature outputs that are 90 deg out of phase. Direction of rotation can be determined from output sequence.

13. Encoder Resolution: Absolute Optical Encoder
Rushi Vyas
Encoder Resolution:
Absolute Optical Encoder
Resolution = 360º/(2n)
n = number of encoder bits
Measures the rotational displacement that can be measured per bit change.
Incremental Optical Encoder
Resolution = 360/n
N = number of windows on code disk
Resolution can be increased by reading both rising and falling edges ( ) and by using quadrature
( ).

14. Examples Number of bits on encoder code disk n = 3
Rushi Vyas
Examples
Number of bits on encoder code disk n = 3
Resolution = 360º/23 = 45º
Number of bits on encoder code disk n = 4
Resolution = 360º/24 = 22.5º

15. Rushi Vyas
Example:
What resolution absolute optical encoder is needed to be able to measure rotational displacements of 1.5 degrees?
N = ?
Resolution = 1.5 degrees
For absolute optical encoder:
Resolution=360/2N =1.5 → N = 7.91 ≈ 8 bits

16. Rushi Vyas
Example:
What number of slits (windows) are needed on the code disk of an incremental optical encoder to be able to measure rotational displacements of 1.5 degrees?
N = ?
Resolution = 1.5 degrees
For incremental optical encoder
Resolution=360/N =1.5 → N = 240 windows

17. Optical Encoders: Reliability
Rushi Vyas
Optical Encoders: Reliability
Encoder errors
Quantization Error – Dependent on digital word size.
Assembly Error – Due to instability in rotational motion of code disk
Manufacturing tolerances – Code printing accuracy, sensor position, and irregularities in signal generation.

18. Optical Encoders: Reliability
Rushi Vyas
Optical Encoders: Reliability
Structural Limitations – Disk Deformation, physical loads on shaft.
Coupling Error – Gear backlash, belt slippage, etc…
Ambient Effects – Vibration, temperature, light noise, humidity, etc…
Diffraction of light: occurs due to edge of codes disk windows. Fixed in newer encoders by using mask and minimizing distance to photodetector.

19. Rushi Vyas
Applications
Primarily used in motors for monitoring velocity and position.
Robotics
Conveyor belts
Locomotives: Automobiles, planes..
Tachometers

20. References Kawasaki Industries Optical Encoders: www.khi.co.jp
Rushi Vyas
References
Kawasaki Industries Optical Encoders:
Compumotors:
ME class notes: Dr. Kurfess, Georgia Tech
Sensors: Fall 08. ME6405
Wikipedia
Computer Optical Products:

21. Laser interferometer
Xiaoyu Ding

22. Laser Interferometer What’s laser interferometer?
Xiaoyu Ding
Laser Interferometer
What’s laser interferometer?
The principle of standard interferometer
Types of interferometers
Applications

23. What’s a Laser Interferometer
Xiaoyu Ding
What’s a Laser Interferometer
Laser Interferometer:
the instrument used for high precision measurements (distance, angles…. etc.)
it uses interferometry as the basis for measurement.
it uses the very small, stable and accurately defined wavelength of laser as a unit of measure.

24. Physics Review Diffraction
Xiaoyu Ding
Physics Review
Diffraction
Diffraction is a sure sign that whatever is passing through the hole is a wave.
Diffraction of Water Waves

25. Physics Review Diffraction of Light
Xiaoyu Ding
Physics Review
Diffraction of Light
Light, just like a water wave, does spread out behind a hole is the hole is sufficiently small.
Light is a electromagnetic wave.
Diffraction of light Wave

26. Physics Review A Double-Slit Interference Experiment Xiaoyu Ding
Interference of Light

27. Principle of Michelson Interferometer
Xiaoyu Ding
Principle of Michelson Interferometer
Albert Michelson (1852~1931)
the first American scientist to receive a Nobel prize, invented the optical interferometer.
The Michelson interferometer has been widely used for over a century to make precise measurements of wavelengths and distances.
Albert Michelson

28. Principle of Michelson Interferometer
Xiaoyu Ding
Principle of Michelson Interferometer
Michelson Interferometer
Separation
Recombination
Interference
A Michelson Interferometer for use on an optical table

29. Principle of Michelson Interferometer
Xiaoyu Ding
Principle of Michelson Interferometer
Analyzing Michelson Interferometer
The central spot in the fringe pattern alternates between bright and dark when Mirror M2 moves.
If we can know the spacing distance of M2 between two sequent central bright spots and the number of central bright spots appeared, then we can calculate how long M2 moved.
Photograph of the interference fringes produced by a Michelson interferometer.

30. Principle of Michelson Interferometer
Xiaoyu Ding
Principle of Michelson Interferometer
Analyzing Michelson Interferometer
Spacing distance of M2 is
laser has very small, stable and accurately defined wavelength which can help us get high precision measurement.

31. Types of Laser Interferometers
Xiaoyu Ding
Types of Laser Interferometers
Homodyne Laser Interferometer (Standard)
It is based on interference of laser waves (Michelson interferometer)
Heterodyne Laser interferometer
It is based on Doppler Effect.

32. Principle of Heterodyne Laser interferometer
Xiaoyu Ding
Principle of Heterodyne Laser interferometer
Doppler Effect
Doppler Effect:
The change of frequency when a source moves relative to an observer.
We can get the velocity of an object by measure the frequency change between incident laser wave and reflected laser wave.

33. Applications Measurement of Distance
Xiaoyu Ding
Applications
Measurement of Distance
1) frequency stabilized He-Ne laser tube
2) combination of beam-splitter and retroreflector
3) a moving retroreflector
4) detection electronics
Aerotech’s LZR3000 Series Laser Interferometer System

34. Applications Other Applications
Xiaoyu Ding
Applications
Other Applications
Measure angles, flatness, straightness, velocity and vibrations, etc.
Rearrangements of the light paths

35. Xiaoyu Ding
Resolution
XL-80 Laser Measurement System

36. References http://www.aerotech.com/products/engref/intexe.html
Xiaoyu Ding
References
PHYSICS FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS, Randall D. Knight, 2003.

37. Linear Variable Differential Transformer（LVDT）
Lei Yang

38. LVDT What is LVDT? Construction of LVDT How LVDT works
Lei Yang
LVDT
What is LVDT?
Construction of LVDT
How LVDT works
Support electronics of LVDT
Properties of LVDT
Types of LVDT
Applications of LVDT

39. What is a LVDT Linear variable differential transformer
Lei Yang
What is a LVDT
Linear variable differential transformer
Electrical transformer measuring linear displacement

40. Construction of LVDT One Primary coil Two symmetric secondary coils
Lei Yang
Construction of LVDT
One Primary coil
Two symmetric secondary coils
Ferromagnetic core
Primary coil
The primary coil is energized with a A.C.
The two secondary coils are identical, symmetrically distributed.
The two secondary coils are connected in opposition
Ferromagnetic core
Secondary coils

41. Recall of conventional transformer
Lei Yang
Recall of conventional transformer
Mutual induction
the secondary voltage proportional to the primary voltage
The transformer core is fixed
Energy transferred is high
Before we talk about how LVDT works. First we will recall some knowledge of conventional transformer. Here is a picture showing it. An alternating current is driven in the primary coils . Then it will create a varying magnetic flux in the transformer’s core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary coil. This varying magnetic field then induces a varying voltage in the secondary coil. This effect is called mutual induction. LVDT is also a kind of transformer. However, there is some differences between LVDT and conventional transformers. The first difference, conventional transformer is used to transform energy level electricity while LVDT is used to process signal level electricity. The second difference is that for conventional transformer, the magnetic core is fixed while for LVDT , the magnetic core is moving.

42. How LVDT works If the core is located midway between S1 and S2
Lei Yang
How LVDT works
If the core is located midway between S1 and S2
Equal flux is coupled to each secondary.
Voltage E1 and E2 are equal.
The differential voltage output, (E1 - E2 ), is zero.
This core position is called null point.
Now we will talk about how LVDT works. When the LVDT is used ,the core is always moving along the axis.
Here S1 and S2 are secondary coils and P is the primary coil.
The LVDT's primary coil, P, is energized by a constant amplitude AC source.
The magnetic flux thus developed is coupled by the core to the adjacent secondary coils, S1 and S2 .
At this reference midway core position, known as the null point, the differential voltage output, (E1 - E2 ), is essentially zero.

43. How LVDT works If the core is moved closer to S1 than to S2
Lei Yang
How LVDT works
If the core is moved closer to S1 than to S2
More flux is coupled to S1 than S2 .
The induced voltage E1 is increased while E2 is decreased.
The differential voltage is (E1 - E2).
The top graph shows how the magnitude of the differential output voltage, EOUT, varies with core position. The value of EOUT at maximum core displacement from null depends upon the amplitude of the primary excitation voltage and the sensitivity factor of the particular LVDT, but is typically several volts RMS. The phase angle of this AC output voltage, EOUT, referenced to the primary excitation voltage, stays constant until the center of the core passes the null point, where the phase angle changes abruptly by 180 degrees, as shown in the middle graph.
This 180 degree phase shift can be used to determine the direction of the core from the null point by means of appropriate circuitry. This is shown in the bottom graph, where the polarity of the output signal represents the core's positional relationship to the null point. The figure shows also that the output of an LVDT is very linear over its specified range of core motion, but that the sensor can be used over an extended range with some reduction in output linearity. The output characteristics of an LVDT vary with different positions of the core. Full range output is a large signal, typically a volt or more, and often requires no amplification. Note that an LVDT continues to operate beyond 100% of full range, but with degraded linearity.

44. How LVDT works If the core is moved closer to S2 than to S1
Lei Yang
How LVDT works
If the core is moved closer to S2 than to S1
More flux is coupled to S2 than to S1 .
The induced E2 is increased as E1 is decreased.
The differential voltage is (E2 - E1).
The top graph shows how the magnitude of the differential output voltage, EOUT, varies with core position. The value of EOUT at maximum core displacement from null depends upon the amplitude of the primary excitation voltage and the sensitivity factor of the particular LVDT, but is typically several volts RMS. The phase angle of this AC output voltage, EOUT, referenced to the primary excitation voltage, stays constant until the center of the core passes the null point, where the phase angle changes abruptly by 180 degrees, as shown in the middle graph.

45. Lei Yang
How LVDT works

46. Support electronics of LVDT
Lei Yang
Support electronics of LVDT
LVDT signal conditioning equipment
Supplying excitation power for an LVDT
typically 3 V rms at 3 kHz
Converting AC output into DC signals with directional information from the 180 degree output phase shift
Although an LVDT is an electrical transformer, it requires AC power of an amplitude and frequency quite different from ordinary power lines to operate properly (typically 3 V rms at 3 kHz). Supplying this excitation power for an LVDT is one of several functions of LVDT support electronics, which is also sometimes known as LVDT signal conditioning equipment.
Other functions include converting the LVDT's low level AC voltage output into high level DC signals that are more convenient to use, decoding directional information from the 180 degree output phase shift as an LVDT's core moves through the null point, and providing an electrically adjustable output zero level.
A variety of LVDT signal conditioning electronics is available, including chip-level and board-level products for OEM applications as well as modules and complete laboratory instruments for users.
The support electronics can also be self-contained, as in the DC-LVDT shown here. These easy-to-use position transducers offer practically all of the LVDT's benefits with the simplicity of DC-in, DC-out operation. Of course, LVDTs with integral electronics may not be suitable for some applications, or might not be packaged appropriately for some installation environments.
External electronics
Self-contained electronics e.g. DC-LVDT

47. Properties of LVDT Friction-Free Operation Infinite Resolution
Lei Yang
Properties of LVDT
Friction-Free Operation
Infinite Resolution
Unlimited Mechanical Life
Single Axis Sensitivity
Environmentally Robust
Null Point Repeatability
Fast Dynamic Response
Absolute Output
LVDTs have certain significant features and benefits, most of which derive from its none contact construction.
Friction-Free Operation
One of the most important features of an LVDT is its friction-free operation. In normal use, there is no mechanical contact between the LVDT's core and coil assembly, so there is no rubbing, dragging or other source of friction. This feature is particularly useful in materials testing, vibration displacement measurements, and high resolution dimensional gaging systems.
Infinite Resolution Since an LVDT operates on electromagnetic coupling principles in a friction-free structure, its resolution is very high. This infinite resolution capability is limited only by the noise in an LVDT signal conditioner and the output display's resolution. These same factors also give an LVDT its outstanding repeatability.
Unlimited Mechanical Life
Because there is normally no contact between the LVDT's core and coil structure, no parts can rub together or wear out. This means that an LVDT features unlimited mechanical life. This factor is especially important in high reliability applications such as aircraft, satellites and space vehicles, and nuclear installations. It means that LVDT is very reliable. It is also highly desirable in many industrial process control and factory automation systems.
Single Axis Sensitivity
An LVDT responds to motion of the core along the coil's axis, but is generally insensitive to cross-axis motion of the core or to its radial position. Thus, an LVDT can usually function without adverse effect in applications involving misaligned or floating moving members, and in cases where the core doesn't travel in a precisely straight line.
Null Point Repeatability
The location of an LVDT's intrinsic null point is extremely stable and repeatable, even over its very wide operating temperature range. This makes an LVDT perform well as a null position sensor in closed-loop control systems and high-performance servo balance instruments.
Fast Dynamic Response
The absence of friction during ordinary operation permits an LVDT to respond very fast to changes in core position. The dynamic response of an LVDT sensor itself is limited only by the inertial effects of the core's slight mass. More often, the response of an LVDT sensing system is determined by characteristics of the signal conditioner.
Absolute Output
An LVDT is an absolute output device, as opposed to an incremental output device. This means that in the event of loss of power, the position data being sent from the LVDT will not be lost. When the measuring system is restarted, the LVDT's output value will be the same as it was before the power failure occurred.

48. Types of LVDT DC LVDT AC LVDT Signal conditioning easier
Lei Yang
Types of LVDT
DC LVDT
Signal conditioning easier
Can operate from dry cell batteries
High unit cost
AC LVDT
Small size
Very accurate – Excellent resolution (0.1 µm)
Can operate with a wide temperature range
Lower unit cost
According to different power supply, LVDT is divided to DC LVDT and AC LVDT.

49. Types of LVDT Free core Guided core Spring-extended core Lei Yang
Core is completely separable from the transducer body
Well-suited for short-range (1 to 50mm), high speed applications (high-frequency vibration)
Guided core
Core is restrained and guided by a low-friction assembly
Both static and dynamic applications
working range (up to 500mm)
Spring-extended core
Internal spring to continuously push the core to its fullest possible extension
Best suited for static or slow-moving applications
Lower range than guided core(10 to 70mm)
According to the types of magnetic cores
Internal spring to continuously push the armature to its fullest possible extension
Lower range than captive armature (10 to 70mm)

50. Example of commercial LVDT
Lei Yang
Example of commercial LVDT
SE-750 Series General Purpose Free Core Single-Ended DC-LVDT Position Sensors
data sheet
Parameter
types

51. Applications of LVDT For power generation
Lei Yang
Applications of LVDT
For power generation
Conditioning valves for large and medium steam turbines.
Reheat and stop valves for large and medium steam turbines.
Feed water boiler pump valve positioning.
Natural gas fuel valve position for gas turbines for throttle control.
Monitoring hydraulic fluid level in reservoir of feed water pumps in nuclear reactor core.
LVDT finds its applications in wide areas.

52. Applications of LVDT For manufacturing
Lei Yang
Applications of LVDT
For manufacturing
Measuring final height placement for automotive wheel trim
Measuring injector height for diesel engines Feed water boiler pump valve positioning.
Thickness measuring in multiple locations of fly-wheel to insure balance.
Controlling depth of hole during machining operations in a rotary transfer machine.
Providing indication and feedback position of rocket engine nozzle actuators during testing.

53. Other Applications Automation Machinery Civil / Structural Engineering
Lei Yang
Other Applications
Automation Machinery
Civil / Structural Engineering
Metal Stamping / Forming
OEM
Pulp and Paper
Industrial Valves
R&D and Test
Automotive Racing

54. Lei Yang
References
Alexandre Lenoble’s lecture

55. Lei Yang
Thank you!