1. Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Emotions and Stress at JetBlue
Former JetBlue employee Steven Slater (shown in photo) and other flight attendants are expected to manage their emotions on the job even when faced with significant stressors.
Former JetBlue employee Steven Slater (shown in photo) and
other flight attendants are expected to manage their emotions
on the job even when faced with significant stressors.

3. Emotions Defined
Psychological, behavioral, and physiological episodes that create a state of readiness.
Most emotions occur without our awareness
Two features of all emotions:
All have some degree of activation
All have core affect –evaluate that something is good/bad
Psychological, behavioral, and physiological episodes
experienced toward an object, person, or event that create a
state of readiness
• Brief events or episodes directed toward someone or
something e.g. joy or anger toward tasks, customers, etc.
• Most emotional reactions are subtle and occur without our
awareness
• Experiences – represent changes in our physiological state
(e.g. heart rate), psychological state (e.g. thought processes),
and behavior (e.g. facial expression)
Features of all emotions
• Evaluation (core affect) – generate a global evaluation e.g.
that something is good or bad, helpful or harmless
• Activation – generate some level of energy within us
Moods
• Not directed toward anything in particular and tend to be
longer-term emotional states

4. Types of Emotions
Two dimensions of emotions – evaluation and activation
• Foundation of the circumplex model of emotions
• e.g. fearful is a negative emotion that generates a high level of
activation
• e.g. relaxed is a pleasant emotion that has fairly low activation

5. Attitudes versus Emotions
Judgments about an attitude object
Experiences related to an attitude object
Based mainly on rational logic
Based on innate and learned responses to environment
Attitudes
• Cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral intentions
toward an attitude object i.e. person, object or event
• Judgments – involve conscious logical reasoning
• More stable over time
Emotions
• Experiences related to an attitude object
• Operate as events, usually without our awareness
• Experience most emotions briefly
Usually stable for days or longer
Usually experienced for seconds or less

6. Traditional Model of Attitudes
Purely cognitive approach
Beliefs: established perceptions of attitude object
Feelings: calculation of good or bad based on beliefs about the attitude object
Behavioral intentions: calculated motivation to act in response to the attitude object
Problem: Ignores important role of emotions in shaping attitudes
Purely cognitive approach
Three components of attitudes
• Beliefs – established perceptions about the attitude object
• Feelings – conscious positive or negative evaluations of the
attitude object (assessed feelings)
• Behavioral intentions – motivation to engage in a particular
behavior regarding the attitude object
• Problem – ignores important and parallel emotional process
that shapes attitudes

7. Attitudes: From Beliefs to Behavior
Perceived Environment
Attitude
Feelings
Beliefs
Behavioral
Intentions
Cognitive process
Emotional process
Emotional Episodes
Beliefs influence our feelings
• Beliefs are perceived facts that you acquire from experience
and other forms of learning
Feelings influence our behavioral intentions
• Feelings are calculated from your beliefs e.g. like or dislike
• People with same feelings can form different behavioral
intentions due to different perceptions about consequences
Behavioral intentions to behavior
• Whether your intentions translate into behavior depends on
the situation and possibly other MARS elements
Behavior

8. Emotions, Attitudes, and Behavior
How emotions influence attitudes:
Feelings and beliefs are influenced by cumulative emotional episodes (not just evaluation of beliefs)
We ‘listen in’ on our emotions
Potential conflict between cognitive and emotional processes
Emotions also directly affect behavior
e.g. facial expression
Emotions play a central role in forming and changing
employee attitudes
• Feelings and beliefs are influenced by numerous emotional
episodes you experience (not just cognitive evaluation of
beliefs)
• We “listen in” on our emotions while thinking through what we
like or dislike
Potential conflict – cognitive and emotional processes may
disagree with each other i.e. “mental tug-of-war” – sensing
that something isn’t right even though they can’t think of any
logical reason to be concerned
Emotions also directly affect behavior e.g. facial expression

9. Generating Positive Emotions at Work
LeasePlan USA and other companies apply the dual cognitive-emotional attitude process.
They actively create more positive than negative emotional episodes, which produce more positive work attitudes.
LeasePlan USA and other companies apply the dual cognitiveemotional
attitude process.
They actively create more positive than negative emotional
episodes, which produce more positive work attitudes.

10. Cognitive Dissonance
A condition whereby we perceive an inconsistency between our beliefs, feelings, and behavior.
This inconsistency generates emotions (e.g., feeling hypocritical) that motivate us to increase consistency.
Easier to increase consistency by changing feelings and beliefs, rather than change behavior.
A condition that occurs when we perceive an inconsistency
between our beliefs, feelings, and behavior
• Inconsistency generates emotions (e.g. feeling hypocritical)
that motivate us to create more consistency by changing one
or more of these elements
• When it is difficult to undo or change behavior e.g. quit your
job – people reduce cognitive dissonance by changing their
beliefs and feelings or rebalancing their self-concept indirectly

11. Emotional Labor Defined
Effort, planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions.
Higher in job requiring:
Frequent/lengthy emotion display
Variety of emotions display
Intense emotions display
Effort, planning and control needed to express organizationally
desired emotions during interpersonal transactions
Emotional labour higher in job requiring:
• Frequent and longer interactions with clients
• Variety of emotions e.g. anger as well as joy
• More intense emotions (e.g. showing delight)

12. Emotional Labor Across Cultures
Displaying or hiding emotions varies across cultures
Minimal emotional expression and monotonic voice in Ethiopia, Japan, Austria
Encourage emotional expression in Kuwait, Egypt, Spain, Russia
Displaying or hiding emotions varies across cultures
• Minimal emotional expression and monotonic voice in Ethiopia,
Japan, Austria
• Encourage open display of one’s true emotions in Kuwait,
Egypt, Spain, Russia—people expected to be dramatic and
animated

13. Emotional Labor Challenges
Difficult to display expected emotions accurately, and to hide true emotions
Emotional dissonance
Conflict between true and required emotions
More stressful with surface acting
Less stressful with deep acting
Difficult to display expected emotions accurately, and to hide
true emotions
Emotional dissonance:
• Conflict between true and required emotions
• Potentially stressful with surface acting (pretending)
• Less stress through deep acting (changing true emotions to
match required emotions)

14. Emotional Intelligence Defined
Ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others
A set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate
emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and
regulate emotion in oneself and others

15. Model of Emotional Intelligence
Self
(personal competence)
Other
(social competence)
Self-awareness
Awareness of others’ emotions
Recognition of emotions
Self-management
Management of others’ emotions
Research findings converging around the four quadrant model
—organizes EI into four dimensions representing:
• Recognition of emotions in ourselves and in others
• Regulation of emotions in ourselves and in others
Regulation of emotions

16. Emotional Intelligence Hierarchy
Management of others’ emotions
Managing other people’s emotions
Highest
Awareness of others’ emotions
Perceiving and understanding the meaning of others’ emotions
Self-management
Managing our own emotions
Four dimensions of emotional intelligence (from lowest to
highest level of competence):
Self-awareness of emotions
• Ability to perceive and understand the meaning of your own
emotions
• Able to eavesdrop in on your emotional responses to specific
situations and to use this awareness as conscious information
Self-management of emotions
• Ability to manage your own emotions
• Goes beyond displaying behavior that represents desired
emotions – requires deep acting to generate or suppress
Awareness of others’ emotions
• Ability to perceive and understand emotions of others
• Empathy – understanding and sensitivity to the feelings,
thoughts, and situation of others
• Being organizationally aware e.g. sensing office politics and
understanding social networks
Management of others’ emotions
• Managing other people’s emotions e.g. consoling people who
feel sad, inspiring team members
Self-awareness
Perceiving and understanding the meaning of your own emotions
Lowest

17. Improving Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is a set of abilities/skills
Can be learned, especially through coaching
EI increases with age -- maturity
Emotional intelligence is a set of abilities/skills
• Can be learned through personal coaching, practice, and
feedback
• EI increases with age – maturity

18. Job Satisfaction
A person's evaluation of his or her job and work context
An appraisal of the perceived job characteristics, work environment, and emotional experience at work
A person's evaluation of his or her job and work context
An appraisal of the perceived job characteristics, work
environment and emotional experiences at work
Most American employees say they are satisfied with their job
• Probably inflated because revealing job dissatisfaction in a
direct question threatens self-esteem

19. EVLN: Responses to Dissatisfaction
Exit
• Leaving the situation
• Quitting, transferring
Voice
• Changing the situation
• Problem solving, complaining
Loyalty
• Patiently waiting for the situation to improve
Exit-voice-loyalty-neglect (EVLN) model identifies 4 ways
employees respond to dissatisfaction:
1. Exit: Leaving the situation by resigning from the organization or
transferring, or at least trying to get away
2. Voice: Any attempt to change, rather than escape from the
dissatisfying situation – e.g. constructive response such as
recommending a way to improve the situation or more
confrontational such as filing a formal grievance
3. Loyalty: Patiently wait for the situation to improve
4. Neglect: Passive activities that have negative consequences for
the organization e.g. reducing work effort/attention to quality,
increasing absenteeism
Neglect
• Reducing work effort/quality
• Increasing absenteeism

20. Job Satisfaction and Performance
Happy workers are somewhat more productive workers, but:
General attitude is a poor predictor of specific behaviors
Job satisfaction effect on performance is lower when employees have less control over output
Reverse explanation: Job performance affects satisfaction, but only when rewarded
Happy workers are somewhat more productive workers –
there is a moderately positive correlation between job
satisfaction and performance…but:
1. General attitude (e.g. job satisfaction) is a poor predictor of
specific behaviors – dissatisfaction might lead to turnover,
complaining, or patiently waiting rather than reduced
performance
2. Dissatisfaction might affect performance only when employees
have control
3. Reverse explanation – job performance might cause job
satisfaction i.e. higher performers receive more rewards so are
more satisfied than low-performing employees who receive less
rewards

21. Service Profit Chain at Clydesdale Bank
Clydesdale Bank in Scotland improved customer service by applying the service profit chain model. It gave its contact center employees more positive experiences at work.
Clydesdale Bank’s customer service contact center has gone
from 65 percent employee turnover and operating costs 25
percent above industry average (in Europe) to a global role
model. This amazing turnaround was achieved by treating
employees well so they treat customers well.

22. Service Profit Chain Model
Job satisfaction increases customer satisfaction and profitability because:
Job satisfaction affects mood, leading to positive behaviors toward customers
Job satisfaction reduces employee turnover, resulting in more consistent and familiar service
Organizational practices
Employee satisfaction and commitment
Employee retention
Employee motivation and behavior
Employees’ job satisfaction influences customer satisfaction
and company profitability:
• Job satisfaction affects mood – leads to displaying friendliness
and positive emotions which causes customers to experience
positive emotions/service experience
• Job satisfaction reduces employee turnover so employees have
better knowledge and skills – customers receive more
consistent and familiar service
Service quality
Customer satisfaction/perceived value
Customer loyalty and referrals
Company profitability and growth

23. Organizational Commitment
Affective commitment
Emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in an organization
Continuance commitment
Calculative attachment – stay because too costly to quit
Affective commitment
• Emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement
in a particular organization – employee’s feeling of loyalty to
the place where he or she works
Continuance commitment
• Calculative attachment to the organization, whereby an
employee is motivated to stay only because leaving i.e. quitting
would be too costly – employee chooses to stay because the
value (typically financial) of staying is higher than the value of
working somewhere else

24. Building Affective Commitment
Justice/ Support
• Apply humanitarian values
• Support employee wellbeing
Shared
Values
• Values congruence
Trust
• Employees trust org leaders
• Job security supports trust
Justice and support
• Apply humanitarian values e.g. fairness, courtesy, integrity
• Support employee well-being
Shared values
• Employees believe their values are congruent with the
organization’s dominant values
Trust (positive expectations one person has toward another
person in situations involving risk) – reciprocal activity
• Employees trust leaders
• Job security supports trust
Organizational comprehension (how well employees
understand the organization e.g. strategic direction)
• Ensure that employees develop a clear mental model of the
organization – information and opportunities to keep up to
date, interact with co-workers, learn about history and plans
Employee involvement
• Employees feel part of company e.g. participate in decisions
• Involvement demonstrates trust – builds loyalty
Organizational Comprehension
• Know firm’s past/present/future
• Open and rapid communication
Employee
Involvement
• Employees feel part of company
• Involvement demonstrates trust

25. What is Stress?
Adaptive response to situations perceived as challenging or threatening to well-being
Prepares us to adapt to hostile or noxious environmental conditions
Eustress vs. distress
Adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as
challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being
Prepares us to adapt to hostile or noxious environmental
conditions e.g. heart rate increases, muscles tighten,
breathing speeds up, body releases adrenaline
Eustress
• Some level of stress that is a necessary part of life -- activates
and motivates people to achieve goals, change their
environments, and succeed in life’s challenges
Distress
• The degree of physiological, psychological, and behavioral
deviation from healthy functioning

26. General Adaptation Syndrome
Stage 1
Alarm Reaction
Stage 2
Resistance
Stage 3
Exhaustion
Normal
Level of
Resistance
Model of the stress experience consisting of 3 stages:
1. Alarm reaction
• Threat or challenge activates the physiological stress responses
• Individual’s energy and coping effectiveness decrease
2. Resistance
• Activates biochemical, psychological, and behavioral
mechanisms giving the individual more energy and coping
mechanisms to overcome or remove the source of stress
• Body reduces resources to the immune system
3. Exhaustion
• Usually able to remove the stressor or remove ourselves before
becoming too exhausted
• People who frequently reach exhaustion have increased risk of
long-term physiological and psychological damage

27. Consequences of Distress
Physiological
Cardiovascular disease, hypertension, headaches
Behavioral
Work performance, accidents, absenteeism, aggression, poor decisions
1. Physiological
• Tension headaches, muscle pain
• Cardiovascular disease – heart attacks, strokes
• Some forms of cancer
2. Psychological
• Job dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression and lower
organizational commitment
3. Behavioral
• Lower job performance, poor decision making, increased
workplace accidents, aggressive behavior
Job Burnout
The process of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and
reduced personal accomplishment resulting from prolonged
exposure to stress
• Stage 1: Emotional exhaustion – lack of energy
• Stage 2: Cynicism (depersonalization) – indifferent attitude
toward work, emotional detachment, strictly follow rules
• Stage 3: Reduced personal accomplishment – diminished
confidence i.e. learned helplessness
Psychological
Dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression, emotional fatigue

28. What are Stressors?
Stressors are the causes of stress -- any environmental condition that places a physical or emotional demand on the person.
Some common workplace stressors include:
Harassment an incivility
Work overload
Low task control
Stressors are the causes of stress – any environmental
condition that places a physical or emotional demand on the
person
Some common workplace stressors include:
• Harassment and incivility
• Work overload
• Low task control

29. Psychological Harassment
Repeated and hostile or unwanted conduct, verbal comments, actions or gestures, that affect an employee's dignity or psychological or physical integrity and that result in a harmful work environment for the employee.
Repeated and hostile or unwanted conduct, verbal comments,
actions or gestures that affect an employee's dignity or
psychological or physical integrity and that result in a harmful
work environment for the employee
• Behaviors ranging from threats and bullying to subtle yet
persistent forms of incivility
Sexual Harassment
Unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature that detrimentally
affects the work environment or leads to adverse job-related
consequences for its victims
• Quid pro quo harassment -- employment or job performance is
conditional on unwanted sexual relations
• Hostile work environment harassment – person experiences
sexual conduct from others that interferes with work
performance or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive
working environment e.g. posting pornographic material

30. Work Overload and Task Control Stressors
Working more hours, more intensely than one can cope
Affected by globalization, consumerism, ideal worker norm
Task Control
Due to lack control over how and when tasks are performed
Stress increases with responsibility
Work Overload
• Working more hours, more intensely than one can cope
• Affected by globalization, consumerism, ideal worker norm
Low Task Control
• Due to lack of control over how and when tasks are performed
• Degree to which low task control is a stressor increases with
the burden of responsibility e.g. assembly-line workers have
low task control but stress can be fairly low if level of
responsibility is also low

31. Individual Differences in Stress
Individual differences that minimize distress:
Better physical health – exercise, lifestyle
Appropriate stress coping strategies
Lower neuroticism
Higher extraversion
Positive self-concept
Lower workaholism
People experience different stress levels when exposed to the
same stressor
Individual differences that minimize distress:
• Better physical health – regular exercise, healthy lifestyle
• Better coping strategies – seeking support from others,
reframing the stressor in a more positive light
• Personality – possibly the most important reason i.e. low
neuroticism (high emotional stability); extroversion (interact
with others, degree of positive thinking); positive self-concept
(high self-esteem, self-efficacy, and internal locus of control)
Workaholism attracts stressors and weakens ability to cope
• Workaholic – a person who is highly involved in work, feels
compelled to work, and has a low enjoyment of work

32. Managing Work-Related Stress
Remove the stressor
Minimize/remove stressors
Work/life balance initiatives
Withdraw from the stressor
Vacation, rest breaks
Change stress perceptions
Positive self-concept, humor
Control stress consequences
Healthy lifestyle, fitness, wellness
Receive social support
Remove the stressor
• Assigning employees to jobs that match their skills/preferences
• Reducing workplace noise
• Having a complaint system and taking corrective action
• Giving employees more control over the work process
• Work-life balance initiatives e.g. flexible and limited work time,
job sharing, teleworking, personal leave, child care support
Withdraw from the stressor
• Permanently – transferred to jobs with better fit
• Temporarily – vacations, holidays, sabbaticals, games rooms
Change stress perceptions
• Improved self-concept, personal goal setting, humor
Control stress consequences
• Physical exercise, meditation, wellness programs, employee
assistance programs
Receive social support
Others provide emotional and/or informational support

33. Workplace Emotions, Attitudes, and Stress