1. The Association Between Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Dating Behavior: A Moderator Model Renee V. Galliher, Ph.D. Idaho State University Institute of Rural Health Melinda S. Harper Deborah P. Welsh, Ph.D. University of Tennessee Department of Psychology

2. Study Summary The current study examines the association between adolescent body dissatisfaction and a range of dating behaviors, including sexual behaviors and dating aggression. In the proposed model, self-esteem was hypothesized to operate as a moderator in the relationship between weight change behaviors and sexual behaviors and dating aggression. Among adolescents with high body image dissatisfaction, high self-esteem may function as a resiliency factor, protecting them from engagement in risky or dangerous romantic relationships, while low self-esteem may operate as a risk factor. Results suggested that self-esteem did not operate as a moderator variable between body dissatisfaction and dating behavior for girls. Rather, self-esteem alone was a better predictor of sexual behavior, while concern about being underweight (or efforts to gain weight) was related to dating aggression. For boys, there was evidence of a moderator effect in predicting the number of nonromantic sexual partners from concern about being overweight. Boys who reported higher levels of self-esteem reported greater numbers of nonromantic sexual partners, despite weight concern.

3. Hypotheses Self-esteem will moderate the relationship between adolescent body image dissatisfaction and dating aggression.Self-esteem will moderate the relationship between adolescent body image dissatisfaction and dating aggression. Self-esteem will moderate the relationship between adolescent body image dissatisfaction and sexual behaviors.Self-esteem will moderate the relationship between adolescent body image dissatisfaction and sexual behaviors.

4. Participants National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health: Wave IINational Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health: Wave II –n = 6504 –age: range = 11 to 21 years

5. Body Image Dissatisfaction Concern about being overweightConcern about being overweight –Self reported weight loss strategies diet, exercise, vomiting, diet pills, laxativesdiet, exercise, vomiting, diet pills, laxatives Weight Loss Score = # strategies endorsedWeight Loss Score = # strategies endorsed Possible range = 1 to 5Possible range = 1 to 5 Concern about being underweightConcern about being underweight –Self reported weight gain strategies diet, exercise, weight lifting, food supplements, steroidsdiet, exercise, weight lifting, food supplements, steroids Weight Gain Score = # strategies endorsedWeight Gain Score = # strategies endorsed Possible range = 1 to 5Possible range = 1 to 5 MalesFemales Mean =1.10 SD =.33 N =1258 Mean =1.25 SD =.49 N =2017 MalesFemales Mean =.16 SD =.36 N = 720 Mean =.48 SD =.50 N = 180

6. Self-Esteem Six items designed to assess self- esteemSix items designed to assess self- esteem –e.g., you like yourself as you are, you have lots of good qualities –Likert scale: 1=strongly agree 5=strongly disagree –Items worded such that lower scores indicate higher self-esteem MalesFemales Mean =10.42 SD = 3.32 N = 2302 alpha =.86 Mean =11.16 SD= 3.58 N= 2511 alpha =.85

7. Sexual Behavior Have you ever:MalesFemales had sexual intercourse? 44.4% yes 55.6% no 42.1% yes 57.9% no had sex with a nonromantic partner? 21.5% yes 78.5% no 13.8% yes 86.2% no had forced sex? 2.3% yes 97.7% no 6.8% yes 93.2% no Total number of sexual partners: mean = 5.94; SD = 28.55 Range = 1 to 500 N = 590 mean = 3.12; SD = 3.23 Range = 1 to 35 N = 339 Total number of nonromantic sexual partners: mean = 3.69; SD = 19.73 Range = 1 to 444 N = 543 mean = 2.33; SD = 3.02 Range = 1 to 35 N = 319

8. Dating Aggression Has Your Partner Ever:MalesFemales Sworn at you? Yes: 6.1 - 20.1% No: 79.9 – 93.0% Yes: 10.3 – 19.7% No: 80.3 – 98.7% Insulted you in public? Yes: 5.4 – 10.9% No: 89.1 – 94.6% Yes: 8.9 – 13.6% No: 86.4 – 91.1% Threatened violence toward you? Yes: 1.3 – 3.0% No: 97.0 – 98.7% Yes: 2.9 – 6.2% No: 93.8 – 97.1% Thrown something at you? Yes: 0.7 – 2.6% No: 97.4 – 99.3% Yes: 1.3 – 2.6% No: 97.4 – 98.7% Pushed or shoved you? Yes: 6.1 - 20.1% No: 91.4 – 96.0% Yes: 2.6 – 6.8% No: 93.2 – 97.4% Total number of types of aggression endorsed: mean =.86; SD = 1.14 Range = 0 to 8; N = 140 mean = 1.10; SD = 1.64 Range = 0 to 7; N = 144 * Percentages represent range over past three relationships

9. Testing the Moderator Model “Moderator is a variable that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between an independent or predictor variable and a dependent variable”.“Moderator is a variable that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between an independent or predictor variable and a dependent variable”. Series of multiple regression and logistic regression analysesSeries of multiple regression and logistic regression analyses –Body dissatisfaction variable, self-esteem, and the product of the two entered as independent variables Moderator effects are indicated by the significant effect of the product of body dissatisfaction and self-esteem while controlling for the effects of the individual variables.Moderator effects are indicated by the significant effect of the product of body dissatisfaction and self-esteem while controlling for the effects of the individual variables. Baron & Kenny (1986). J. of Pers. and Soc. Psych. 51(6), 1173-1182.

10. Predicting Dating Aggression Girls with higher Weight Gain Sum Scores reported more incidents of dating aggressionGirls with higher Weight Gain Sum Scores reported more incidents of dating aggression –R 2 =.41 –t = 2.81, p =.01 Body dissatisfaction and self-esteem were unrelated to dating aggression for boysBody dissatisfaction and self-esteem were unrelated to dating aggression for boys No moderator effects observed in predicting dating aggressionNo moderator effects observed in predicting dating aggression

11. Predicting Males’ Sexual Behaviors Self-esteem moderated the relationship between weight loss efforts and the number of nonromantic sexual partnersSelf-esteem moderated the relationship between weight loss efforts and the number of nonromantic sexual partners –Interaction beta = -.16, t = -2.53, p =.01 Self-esteem predicted whether or not males had ever had sexual intercourseSelf-esteem predicted whether or not males had ever had sexual intercourse –Logistic regression: Wald = 5.31, df = 1, p<.05 Self-esteem predicted whether or not males had ever had forced sexual intercourseSelf-esteem predicted whether or not males had ever had forced sexual intercourse –Logistic regression: Wald = 4.47, df = 1, p<.05

12. Predicting Females’ Sexual Behaviors Self-esteem predicted whether or not females had ever had sexual intercourseSelf-esteem predicted whether or not females had ever had sexual intercourse –Logistic regression: Wald = 22.48, df = 1, p<.001 Self-esteem predicted whether or not females had ever had sexual intercourse with a nonromantic partnerSelf-esteem predicted whether or not females had ever had sexual intercourse with a nonromantic partner –Logistic regression: Wald = 16.13, df = 1, p<.001

13. Discussion For boys, self-esteem moderated the effects of concern about being overweight. Boys with higher self-esteem who engaged in more weight loss behaviors had more nonromantic sexual partners, while boys with lower self-esteem who engaged in more weight loss behaviors had fewer nonromantic partners. Higher self-esteem may moderate feelings of unattractiveness and enhance boys’ capacity to attract sexual partners. However, it may also put boys at risk for some of the health consequences associated with multiple sex partners (e.g., sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy).For boys, self-esteem moderated the effects of concern about being overweight. Boys with higher self-esteem who engaged in more weight loss behaviors had more nonromantic sexual partners, while boys with lower self-esteem who engaged in more weight loss behaviors had fewer nonromantic partners. Higher self-esteem may moderate feelings of unattractiveness and enhance boys’ capacity to attract sexual partners. However, it may also put boys at risk for some of the health consequences associated with multiple sex partners (e.g., sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy).

14. For both boys and girls, lower self-esteem was related to greater likelihood of having had sexual intercourse. Girls who reported lower self- esteem were more likely to have had sex and to have had sex with a nonromantic partner. Boys who reported lower self-esteem were more likely to report having had sex and having had forced sex. High self-esteem may protect both male and female adolescents from engaging in premature sexual behavior, particularly potentially harmful or dangerous sexual behaviors such as forced sex and sex with multiple/nonromantic partners.For both boys and girls, lower self-esteem was related to greater likelihood of having had sexual intercourse. Girls who reported lower self- esteem were more likely to have had sex and to have had sex with a nonromantic partner. Boys who reported lower self-esteem were more likely to report having had sex and having had forced sex. High self-esteem may protect both male and female adolescents from engaging in premature sexual behavior, particularly potentially harmful or dangerous sexual behaviors such as forced sex and sex with multiple/nonromantic partners. For girls, concern about being underweight (more efforts to gain weight) was associated with report of more incidents of dating aggression. Perhaps girls with more diminutive stature are at greater risk for dating aggression. This hypothesis could be tested with physiological data assessing actual size, as opposed to attitudes and behaviors.For girls, concern about being underweight (more efforts to gain weight) was associated with report of more incidents of dating aggression. Perhaps girls with more diminutive stature are at greater risk for dating aggression. This hypothesis could be tested with physiological data assessing actual size, as opposed to attitudes and behaviors.

15. Study Summary The current study examines the association between adolescent body dissatisfaction and a range of dating behaviors, including sexual behaviors and dating aggression. In the proposed model, self-esteem was hypothesized to operate as a moderator in the relationship between weight change behaviors and sexual behaviors and dating aggression. Among adolescents with high body image dissatisfaction, high self-esteem may function as a resiliency factor, protecting them from engagement in risky or dangerous romantic relationships, while low self-esteem may operate as a risk factor. Results suggested that self-esteem did not operate as a moderator variable between body dissatisfaction and dating behavior for girls. Rather, self-esteem alone was a better predictor of sexual behavior, while concern about being underweight (or efforts to gain weight) was related to dating aggression. For boys, there was some evidence of a moderator effect in predicting the number of nonromantic sexual partners from concern about being overweight. Boys who reported higher levels of self-esteem reported greater numbers of nonromantic sexual partners, despite weight loss efforts.