1. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley Chapter 5 More SQL: Complex Queries, Triggers, Views, and Schema Modification

2. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Comparisons Involving NULL and Three-Valued Logic  Meanings of NULL  Unknown value  Unavailable or withheld value  Not applicable attribute  Each individual NULL value considered to be different from every other NULL value  SQL uses a three-valued logic:  TRUE, FALSE, and UNKNOWN

3. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Comparisons Involving NULL and Three-Valued Logic (cont’d.)

4. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Comparisons Involving NULL and Three-Valued Logic (cont’d.)  SQL allows queries that check whether an attribute value is NULL  IS or IS NOT NULL

5. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Nested Queries, Tuples, and Set/Multiset Comparisons  Nested queries  Complete select-from-where blocks within WHERE clause of another query, which is called the Outer query.  Comparison operator IN  Compares value v with a set (or multiset) of values V  Evaluates to TRUE if v is one of the elements in V

6. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Nested Queries (cont’d.)

7. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Nested Queries (cont’d.)  Use tuples of values in comparisons  Place them within parentheses

8. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe  Use other comparison operators to compare a single value v  = ANY (or = SOME ) operator Returns TRUE if the value v is equal to some value in the set V and is hence equivalent to IN  Other operators that can be combined with ANY (or SOME ): >, >=, Nested Queries (cont’d.)

9. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Nested Queries (cont’d.)  Avoid potential errors and ambiguities  Create tuple variables (aliases) for all tables referenced in SQL query

10. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Nested Queries (cont’d.)  In general, a query written with nested select-from-where blocks and using the = or IN comparison operators can always be expressed as a single block query.

11. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Correlated Nested Queries  Correlated nested query: Whenever a condition in the WHERE clause of a nested query references some attribute of a relation declared in the outer query, the two queries are said to be correlated

12. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe The EXISTS and UNIQUE Functions in SQL  EXISTS function  Check whether the result of a correlated nested query is empty or not  The result of EXISTS is a Boolean value TRUE if the nested query result contains at least one tuple, or FALSE if the nested query result contains no tuples  EXISTS and NOT EXISTS  Typically used in conjunction with a correlated nested query  SQL function UNIQUE(Q)  Returns TRUE if there are no duplicate tuples in the result of query Q

13. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe The EXISTS and UNIQUE Functions in SQL

14. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Explicit Sets and Renaming of Attributes in SQL  Can use explicit set of values in WHERE clause  Use qualifier AS followed by desired new name  Rename any attribute that appears in the result of a query

15. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins  Joined table  Permits users to specify a table resulting from a join operation in the FROM clause of a query  The FROM clause in Q1A  Contains a single joined table  Specify different types of join  NATURAL JOIN  Various types of OUTER JOIN

16. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins (cont’d.)  NATURAL JOIN on two relations R and S  No join condition specified  Implicit EQUIJOIN condition for each pair of attributes with same name from R and S

17. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins (cont’d.)  LEFT OUTER JOIN  Every tuple in left table must appear in result  If no matching tuple Padded with NULL values for attributes of right table

18. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins (cont’d.)  RIGHT OUTER JOIN  Every tuple in right table must appear in result  If no matching tuple Padded with NULL values for the attributes of left table  FULL OUTER JOIN  Can nest join specifications

19. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Aggregate Functions in SQL  Used to summarize information from multiple tuples into a single-tuple summary  Grouping  Create subgroups of tuples before summarizing  Built-in aggregate functions  COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG  Functions can be used in the SELECT clause or in a HAVING clause  NULL values discarded when aggregate functions are applied to a particular column

20. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Aggregate Functions in SQL (cont’d.)

21. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Aggregate Functions in SQL (cont’d.)

22. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Grouping: The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses  Partition relation into subsets of tuples  Based on grouping attribute(s)  Apply function to each such group independently  GROUP BY clause  Specifies grouping attributes  If NULLs exist in grouping attribute  Separate group created for all tuples with a NULL value in grouping attribute

23. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Grouping: The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses

24. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Grouping: The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses (cont’d.)  HAVING clause  Provides a condition on the summary information regarding the group of tuples associated with each value of the grouping attributes.

25. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Grouping: The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses (cont’d.)

26. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Grouping: The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses (cont’d.)

27. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Discussion and Summary of SQL Queries

28. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Discussion and Summary of SQL Queries  A query as being executed as follows: For each combination of tuples—one from each of the relations specified in the FROM clause—evaluate the WHERE clause; if it evaluates to TRUE, place the values of the attributes specified in the SELECT clause from this tuple combination in the result of the query  A query is evaluated conceptually by first applying the FROM clause (to identify all tables involved in the query or to materialize any joined tables), followed by the WHERE clause to select and join tuples, and then by GROU P BY and HAVING. Conceptually, ORDER BY is applied at the end to sort the query result.

29. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Specifying Constraints as Assertions and Actions as Triggers  CREATE ASSERTION  Specify additional types of constraints outside scope of built-in relational model constraints  CREATE TRIGGER  Specify automatic actions that database system will perform when certain events and conditions occur

30. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Specifying General Constraints as Assertions in SQL  CREATE ASSERTION  Whenever some tuples in the database cause the condition of an ASSERTION statement to evaluate to FALSE, the constraint is violated. The constraint is satisfied by a database state if no combination of tuples in that database state violates the constraint.  Specify a query that selects any tuples that violate the desired condition  Use only in cases where it is not possible to use CHECK on attributes and domains A major difference between CREATE ASSERTION and the individual domain constraints and tuple constraints is that the CH ECK clauses on individual attributes, domains, and tuples are checked in SQL only when tuples are inserted or updated.

31. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Specifying General Constraints as Assertions in SQL  Example: the constraint that the salary of an employee must not be greater than the salary of the manager of the department that the employee works for

32. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Introduction to Triggers in SQL  CREATE TRIGGER statement  Used to monitor the database  Typical trigger has three components:  Event(s): These are usually database update operations that are explicitly applied to the database. These events are specified after the keyword BEFORE in our example, which means that the trigger should be executed before the triggering operation is executed. The keyword AFTER, which specifies that the trigger should be executed after the operation specified in the event is completed.  Condition: determines whether the rule action should be executed.  Action: The action is usually a sequence of SQL statements, but it could also be a database transaction or an external program that will be automatically executed.

33. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Introduction to Triggers in SQL  Suppose we want to check whenever an employee’s salary is greater than the salary of his or her direct supervisor in the COMPANY database

34. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Views (Virtual Tables) in SQL  Concept of a view in SQL  Single table derived from other tables  Considered to be a virtual table  A view can be thought as a way of specifying a table that we need to reference frequently, even though it may not exist physically.

35. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Specification of Views in SQL  CREATE VIEW command  Give table name, list of attribute names, and a query to specify the contents of the view

36. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Specification of Views in SQL (cont’d.)  Specify SQL queries on a view  View always up-to-date  Responsibility of the DBMS and not the user  DROP VIEW command  Dispose of a view

37. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe View Implementation, View Update, and Inline Views  Complex problem of efficiently implementing a view for querying  Query modificationapproach  Modify view query into a query on underlying base tables  Disadvantage: inefficient for views defined via complex queries that are time-consuming to execute

38. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe View Implementation  View materialization approach  Physically create a temporary view table when the view is first queried  Keep that table on the assumption that other queries on the view will follow  Requires efficient strategy for automatically updating the view table when the base tables are updated  Incremental update strategies: DBMS determines what new tuples must be inserted, deleted, or modified in a materialized view table

39. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe View Update and Inline Views  Update on a view defined on a single table without any aggregate functions  Can be mapped to an update on underlying base table  View involving joins  Often not possible for DBMS to determine which of the updates is intended  Clause WITH CHECK OPTION  Must be added at the end of the view definition if a view is to be updated  In-line view  Defined in the FROM clause of an SQL query

40. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe Schema Change Statements in SQL  Schema evolution commands  Can be done while the database is operational  Does not require recompilation of the database schema

41. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe The DROP Command  DROP command  Used to drop named schema elements, such as tables, domains, or constraint  Drop behavior options:  CASCADE and RESTRICT  Example:  DROP SCHEMA COMPANY CASCADE;

42. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe The ALTER Command  Alter table actions include:  Adding or dropping a column (attribute)  Changing a column definition  Adding or dropping table constraints  Example:  ALTER TABLE COMPANY.EMPLOYEE ADD COLUMN Job VARCHAR(12);  To drop a column  Choose either CASCADE or RESTRICT

43. Copyright © 2011 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe The ALTER Command (cont’d.)  Change constraints specified on a table  Add or drop a named constraint