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THE FIRST TRANS-REGIONAL CIVILIZATION
ISLAM THE FIRST TRANS-REGIONAL CIVILIZATION
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CURRENT MUSLIM WORLD
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PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA The Arabian peninsula Post-classical Arabia
Largely deserts with mountains, oases Fertile areas in the southern mountains around Yemen Nomadic Bedouin Lived in the desert-covered peninsula for millennia Kept herds of sheep, goats, and camels Organized in family and clan groups Importance of kinship and loyalty to the clan Many tribes were matrilineal with some rights for women Urbanized Arabs in oases, cities across area Post-classical Arabia Romans (Byzantines), Persians had client kingdoms Roman Nabateans (Arabia Petropolis, Petra) Herod was an Arabic Jew who ruled a client kingdom Queen Zenobia of Palmyra Active in long-distance over land trade Trade from Damascus to Mecca/Medina to Yemen Trade across desert to Persian Gulf and along coast Part of Red Sea trade system; links between Yemen, Abyssinia Trade includes gold, frankincense and myrrh Religions Tribes were polytheist worshipping sun, moon, spirits Groups of Jews, Monophysite Christians in cities Zoroastrian merchants throughout region
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TRADE ROUTES c. 500 CE
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PHYSICAL MAP OF ARABIA
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MUHAMMAD’S EARLY LIFE Muhammad ibn Abdullah
Born in a Mecca merchant family, 570 C.E. Difficult early life: orphaned, lived with uncle Married a wealthy widow, Khadija, in 595 Became a merchant at age 30, exposed to various faiths Muhammad's spiritual transformation At age 40, on retreat he experienced visions There was only one true god, Allah ("the god") Allah would soon bring judgment on the world The archangel Gabriel delivered these revelations to Muhammad Did not intend to found a new religion, but his message became appealing Conflict at Mecca His teachings offended others, especially ruling elite of Mecca Attacks on greed offended wealthy merchants Attacks on idolatry threatened shrines, especially the Kaa'ba The hijra Under persecution, Muhammad, followers fled to Medina, 622 C.E. The move, known as hijra, was starting point of Islamic calendar The first umma organized in Medina Organized a cohesive community of the faithful Led commercial adventure, lanuched raids against Mecca caravans Helped the poor and needy Returned in triumph to Mecca after winning wars
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THE MESSANGER The "seal of the prophets" The Quran The Hadith
Who was Muhammad Referred to himself as "seal of the prophets" Final prophet of Allah but not the Son of God Held Hebrew scriptures and New Testament in high esteem Referred to followers as “Peoples of the Book” If they did not threaten umma, were to be protected Paid a head tax for right to worship, did not tithe Could not kill, hurt people of the book unless they attacked Muslims Determined to spread Allah's wish to all humankind The Quran Followers compiled Muhammad's actual revelations after his death Rewritten by the 2nd Caliph into a work of magnificent poetry Muslims are commanded to read the Quran, therefore literacy high Quran ("recitation"), became the holy book of Islam Suras are chapters; organized from longest to shortest 147 Suras The Hadith Sayings attributed to Muhammad; not included in Quran Three levels from most accurate/likely to highly suspect
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CONQUEST OF ARABIA Muhammad's return to Mecca The Kaa'ba
Conquered Mecca, 630 Created a theocratic government dedicated to Allah Suppressed rebellious tribes in area including Jewish tribes Destroyed pagan shrines and built mosques The Kaa'ba The Kaa'ba shrine was not destroyed In 632, Muhammad led the first Islamic pilgrimage to the Kaa'ba The Five Pillars of Islam Obligations taught by Muhammad, known as the Five Pillars The Five Pillars bound the umma into a cohesive community of faith Profession of faith, prayer, tithing, pilgrimage, fasting at Ramadan Islamic law: the sharia Emerged during the centuries after Muhammad Detailed guidance on proper behavior in almost every aspect of life Drew laws, precepts from the Quran Drew traditions from Arabic culture, Hadith Through the sharia, Islam became a religion and a way of life
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6TH CENTURY ARABIA
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SYMBOLS OF ISLAM
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EXPANSION OF ISLAM Dar al Islam or Dar el Harb? The caliph
Upon Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr served as caliph ("deputy") Became head of state, chief judge, religious leader, military commander First four called Orthodox caliphs because they were original followers The expansion of Islam , seized Byzantine Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia 640's, conquered Egypt and north Africa 651, toppled Sassanid dynasty , conquered Hindu region of Sind; Iberia, NW Africa Success due to weakness of enemies, vigor of Islam Dar al Islam or Dar el Harb? The Islamic world where the Sharia is in force, Islam dominates Dar el Harb is the land of the unbelievers, or non-Muslims The Shia and Sunnis The Sunnis ("traditionalists") accepted legitimacy of early caliphs Were Arab as opposed to Islamic Did not feel caliphs had to be related to Muhammad The Shia sect supported Ali (last caliph and son in law of Muhammad) A refuge for non-Arab converts, poor; followers in Irag, Iran Felt caliphs should be directly related to Muhammad Two sects struggled over succession; produced a civil war, murder
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SPREAD OF ISLAM
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UMAYYAD DYNASTY The Umayyad dynasty (661-750 C.E.)
Umayyads had been the clan which ruled Mecca before Muhammad Umayyad elected caliph, won civil war, established dynasty Ali murdered by caliph’s followers Established capital city at Damascus in Syria Ruled for the interests of Arabian military aristocracy Policy toward conquered peoples Dhimmis were the conquered Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians Levied jizya (head tax) on those who did not convert to Islam Even the converts did not enjoy wealth, position of authority Umayyad decline Caliphs became alienated from Arabs by early 8th century By the mid-century, faced strong resistance of the Shia faction The discontent of conquered peoples also increased Umayyad family slaughtered; only one son escaped to Spain Formed breakaway Umayyad Dynasty in Spain
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ABBASID DYNASTY Abu al-Abbas The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 C.E.)
A descendant of Muhammad's uncle; allied with Shias and non-Arab Muslims Seized control of Persia and Mesopotamia during 740's Shattered Umayyad forces at a battle in 750; annihilated the Umayyad clan The Abbasid dynasty ( C.E.) Showed no special favor to Arab military aristocracy Empire still growing, but not initiated by the central government Abbasid administration Relied heavily on Persians, Persian techniques of statecraft Central authority ruled from the court at Baghdad, newly built city Governors ruled provinces; Ulama, qadis (judges) ruled local areas Harun al-Rashid ( C.E.) Represented the high point of the dynasty Baghdad became metropolis, center for commerce, industry, and culture Abbasid decline Struggle for succession between Harun's sons led to civil war Governors built their own power bases, regional dynasties Local military commanders took title of Sultan Popular uprisings and peasant rebellions weakened the dynasty A Persian noble seized control of Baghdad in 945 Later, the Seljuk Turks controlled the imperial family
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AN URBAN CIVILIZATION Arab Urban History
Pre-Islamic Arabs were both urban, bedouin Mecca, Medina, Yemeni cities, cities of Palmyra, Arab Petropolis Center of the city was a market place often shared with religious center Cities designed with human-environment interaction in mind Nomads came to city to trade, city often settled by whole tribes Arabs had settled in cities in Syria, Iraq, Jordan Arabic cities linked to wider world through merchants, trade Arab cities exposed to Jews, Persians, Monophysites, Sabeans Arabic Empire and Urban Growth Islam as a culture requires mosque, merchant: very urban in outlook Capital moved from Mecca to Damascus by Umayyads Arabs founded military cities on edges of desert to rule empire As empire grew, needed something more permanent Abbasids moved capital from Damascus, Kufa to Baghdad Other designed for purpose cities include Fez, Cairo, Tunis Increasing agricultural production contributed to growth of cities Cities: centers for administration, industry, trade, education, faith Many different ethnic minorities settled in Muslim cities (quarters) Mosque at center surrounded by suk, square, in decreasing social order
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HARUN AL RASHID & BAGHDAD
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CHANGED ECONOMICS Merchants, pilgrims, travelers exchanged foods across empire Exchange and spread of food and industrial crops Indian plants traveled to other lands of the empire Staple crops: sugarcane, rice, new varieties of sorghum and wheat Vegetables: spinach, artichokes, eggplants Fruits: oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, coconuts, watermelons, mangoes Industrial crops: cotton, indigo, henna Effects of new crops Increased varieties and quantities of food Industrial crops: basis for a thriving textile industry Foodstuffs increased health, populations of cities Agricultural experimentation Numerous agricultural manuals Agricultural methods and techniques improved Improved irrigation
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A VAST TRADE ZONE Camels and caravans
Overland desert trade traveled mostly by camel caravan Caravanserais (motel, corrals) in Islamic cities Trading goods usually luxury in nature Maritime trade based on technological borrowing Arab, Persian mariners borrowed Compass from the Chinese Lateen sail from southeast Asian, Indian mariners Astrolabe from the Hellenistic mariners Organization and dominance of trade In North Africa across Sahara, down Nile, SW Asia, to India Eastern Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabia Gulf down coasts Many cities grew rich from trade Entrepreneurs often pooled their resources in group investments Different kinds of joint endeavors Banks Operated on large scale and provided extensive services Letters of credit, or sakk, functioned as bank checks Exchange of Ideas included Islam, technology, culture
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ISLAMIC TRADE
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WOMEN’S CHANGING STATUS
Pre-Islamic Arab Women Arabs as nomads allowed women many rights Women often poets, tribe leaders Some evidence of matrilineal tribes The Quran and women Quran enhanced rights, security of women Forced husbands to honor contracts, love women Allowed women to own property, protected from exploitation What produced the change Foreign Contacts changed the perspective Adopted veiling from Mesopotamia, Persia Isolation from India through purdah, harem Muslim rights for women Often weaken through Hadith, traditions Often reduced, ignored Patriarch beliefs reinforced by conquest Yet Quran, sharia also reinforced male domination Role of Hadith, Arab traditions reinforced male domination Women in West Africa, Central Asia Much freer than their Arab, Persian, Indian counterparts Carryover of traditions from previous cultural tolerance of women
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IMAGE OF WOMEN
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ISLAM & OTHER CONTACTS Persian influence on Islam Turkish influences
After Arabs most prominent of Muslims, resisted Arabization Cultural traditions often borrowed heavily by Islam Became early followers of Shia Government and regionalism Many advisors (vizer is Persian word) to Caliphs were Persian Cultured, diplomatic language of Abbassid court became Persian Literary achievements Omar Khayyam was greatest of Medieval Muslim poets The Arabian Nights largely in a Persian style Turkish influences Central Asian nomads converted to Islam, developed literary culture Invaded SW Asia and made caliphate dependent on Turkish nomads Formed military might, leadership of late Abbassid state Indian Influences Purdah and harem borrowed from Hindus "Hindi numerals," which Europeans called "Arabic numerals" Greek Influences Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle; Greek math Effort of harmonizing two traditions met resistance from Sufis
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ISLAMIC CULTURAL TRADITION
Quran, sharia were main sources to formulate moral guidelines Constant struggle between what is Arabic and what is Islamic Use of Arabic script as only language of Islam strengthened trend Persians, Turks, Indians, and Africans struggled for acceptance Promotion of Islamic values Ulama, qadis, and missionaries were main agents Education also promoted Islamic values Sufis Islamic mystics, effective missionaries Encouraged devotion by singing, dancing Led ascetic, holy lives, won respect Encouraged followers to revere Allah in own ways Tolerated those who associated Allah with other beliefs The hajj The Kaa'ba became the symbol of Islamic cultural unity Pilgrims helped to spread Islamic beliefs and values
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TURKS & ISLAM Early Turkic Tribes The Seljuk Turks
Originated in Central Asia, Mongolia The Götürk Empire arose c. 6th century Confederacy of tribes united under khans Remained nomadic but adopted Syriac script Some conversion to Christianity, Buddhism Broke up over rivalries between clans Turkish tribes Turks migrated Towards Iran, Russian Steppes Became the Khazars and Seljuks The Seljuk Turks The Sultanate Converted to Sunni Islam while in Central Asia 1037: group migrated into Iran, set up a sultanate 1055: captured Baghdad and later Jerusalem 1071: defeated Byzantines at Manzikert and occupied Anatolia Sultans and Mameluks Left Abbasid caliphs as figurehead Sultans were military commanders and governors of provinces Mameluks were slave soldiers – Turkish slaves formed military aristocracy Large numbers settled Anatolia producing a flowering of Turkish culture Sultanates of Delhi and Egypt were Mameluk, Turkish
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THE CRUSADES Religiously sanctioned wars “The Crusades”
Muslim Jihad has its Christian counterpart Early Islam sanctioned Holy Wars, initially Christianity did not Muslim conquest of largely Christian lands changed tradition Christian Reconquista in Iberia Christian knights sanctioned by Church fought Muslims Warfare in Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia, Crete preceded 11th century “The Crusades” A Changed Situation in Southwest Asia Turkish conquests changed situation They conquered Holy Land Arabs had permitted pilgrimage, Turks curtailed it The Byzantine Empire Byzantines in Schism with West asked Pope for help Pope saw chance to reunite churches and end schism Church calls for crusades, offers indulgences More than nine crusaders Initial one conquered Holy Land and set up crusader states Next crusades all called to defend conquests Opened up West to Islamic contacts but had not impact on Islam
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OTHER ISLAMIC REGIONS Al-Andalus North Africa Central Asia
Iberian Peninsular largely conquered by Muslim Berbers 711 – 714 Claimed independence from the Abbasid dynasty Participated in commercial life of the larger Islamic world Products of al-Andalus enjoyed a reputation for excellence Cordoba was a center of learning, commerce, architecture After death of Abd al Rahman III broke up into petty kingdoms A unique blended culture Arab, Latin, German, Islamic, Christian, Jewish Very tolerant and integrated society Warred for 700 years with Christian kingdoms in north North Africa Strong followers of Shia, broke with Abbassids Berbers followed many puritanical Shia like movements Eventually Fatimids conquered Egypt, formed rival caliphate Central Asia Largely Turkish, Persian and Islamic but not Arabic Tended to be distant from Baghdad and more tolerant Integrated into trans-Eurasian trade network
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MUSLIM SPAIN & THE RECONQUISTA
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EGYPT DURING PERIOD Arab Conquest of Egypt Fatimid Egypt Ayyubid Egypt
Conquered c. 639 CE when Coptic Christians opened borders to Muslims Arabs ruled through governors but did not seek conversions Umayyad and Abbasid rule weakened and local sultans took great power Over-taxation led to revolts and settlement of Arab tribes as soldiers Fatimid Egypt Arab Shia Muslim dynasty of Egypt 909 – 1171 Rulers belonged to Ismaili branch of Shia Islam Proclaimed themselves Caliphs Established Cairo Ayyubid Egypt A Sunni Dynasty of Kurdish origins 1171 – 1341 Saladin dissolves Fatimid rule, proclaims himself sultan Spends early part conquering Holy Land, Hejaz, North Africa Warred with Crusaders but established an amicable relationship Lifestyles A period of toleration between Muslims, Jews, Coptic Christians A time of great prosperity where Egypt was a center of interactions Conversion was slow but gradual: Arabic replaced Coptic as main language
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