1. Oligopoly

2. Definition Industry with only a few sellers Industry with only a few sellers A firm in this industry is called an oligopolistic A firm in this industry is called an oligopolistic An oligopoly isn’t just made up of large firms, it is about how many competitors there are An oligopoly isn’t just made up of large firms, it is about how many competitors there are

3. Definition Imperfect competition – firms compete but also possess market power which allows them to affect market prices Imperfect competition – firms compete but also possess market power which allows them to affect market prices Examples: airlines, banana plantations (Dole, Chiquita, Del Monte), cola (Coca-Cola and Pepsi) Examples: airlines, banana plantations (Dole, Chiquita, Del Monte), cola (Coca-Cola and Pepsi)

4. Definition Why are they so prevalent? Why are they so prevalent? Weaker form of monopolies Weaker form of monopolies Existence of increasing returns to scale (gives bigger producers a cost advantage over smaller ones) Existence of increasing returns to scale (gives bigger producers a cost advantage over smaller ones) – When this is in effect, they lead to monopoly – When this is weak, it leads to an industry with a small number of firms

5. Understanding Oligopoly Duopoly – oligopoly consisting of only two firms Duopoly – oligopoly consisting of only two firms – Duopolist is each firm Collusion – sellers engage in this when they cooperate to raise their joint profits Collusion – sellers engage in this when they cooperate to raise their joint profits Cartel – an agreement among several producers to obey output restrictions in order to increase their joint profits Cartel – an agreement among several producers to obey output restrictions in order to increase their joint profits

6. Understanding Oligopoly If only two firms in the industry, each would realize that by producing more, it would drive down the market price If only two firms in the industry, each would realize that by producing more, it would drive down the market price So each firm would, like a monopolist, realize that profits would be higher if it and its rival limited their production So each firm would, like a monopolist, realize that profits would be higher if it and its rival limited their production So how much will the two firms produce? So how much will the two firms produce?

7. Understanding Oligopoly Could engage in collusion and cooperate to raise their joint profits Could engage in collusion and cooperate to raise their joint profits Strongest form of collusion is a cartel Strongest form of collusion is a cartel Ex. OPEC Ex. OPEC They may also engage in non-cooperative behavior, ignoring the effects of their actions on each others’ profits. They may also engage in non-cooperative behavior, ignoring the effects of their actions on each others’ profits.

8. Understanding Oligopoly By acting as if they were a single monopolist, oligopolists can maximize their combined profits. So there is an incentive to form a cartel. By acting as if they were a single monopolist, oligopolists can maximize their combined profits. So there is an incentive to form a cartel. However, each firm has an incentive to cheat— to produce more than it is supposed to under the cartel agreement. So there are two principal outcomes: successful collusion or behaving non-cooperatively by cheating. However, each firm has an incentive to cheat— to produce more than it is supposed to under the cartel agreement. So there are two principal outcomes: successful collusion or behaving non-cooperatively by cheating. When firms ignore the effects of their actions on each others’ profits, they engage in non- cooperative behavior. It is likely to be easier to achieve informal collusion when firms in an industry face capacity constraints. When firms ignore the effects of their actions on each others’ profits, they engage in non- cooperative behavior. It is likely to be easier to achieve informal collusion when firms in an industry face capacity constraints.

9. Competing in Prices vs. Competing in Quantities When firms ignore the effects of their actions on each others’ profits, they engage in non- cooperative behavior. It is likely to be easier to achieve informal collusion when firms in an industry face capacity constraints. When firms ignore the effects of their actions on each others’ profits, they engage in non- cooperative behavior. It is likely to be easier to achieve informal collusion when firms in an industry face capacity constraints. Firms may decide to engage in quantity or price competition. Firms may decide to engage in quantity or price competition.

10. Competing in Prices vs. Competing in Quantities  The basic insight of the quantity competition is that when firms are restricted in how much they can produce, it is easier for them to avoid excessive competition and to “divvy up” the market, thereby pricing above marginal cost and earning profits.  It is easier for them to achieve an outcome that looks like collusion without a formal agreement.

11. Competing in Prices vs. Competing in Quantities The logic behind the price competition is that when firms produce perfect substitutes and have sufficient capacity to satisfy demand when price is equal to marginal cost, then each firm will be compelled to engage in competition by undercutting its rival’s price until the price reaches marginal cost—that is, perfect competition. The logic behind the price competition is that when firms produce perfect substitutes and have sufficient capacity to satisfy demand when price is equal to marginal cost, then each firm will be compelled to engage in competition by undercutting its rival’s price until the price reaches marginal cost—that is, perfect competition.

12. Kinked Demand Curve  An oligopolist who believes she will lose a substantial number of sales if she reduces output and increases her price, but will gain only a few additional sales if she increases output and lowers her price away from the tacit collusion outcome, faces a kinked demand curve—very flat above the kink and very steep below the kink.  It illustrates how tacit collusion can make an oligopolist unresponsive to changes in marginal cost within a certain range when those changes are unique to her.

13. Kinked Demand Curve Q* P* Quantity Price, cost marginal revenue X W Y D Z MR MC 2 1 1. Any marginal cost in this region 2. … corresponds to this level of output Tacit collusion outcome

14. The Ups and Downs of the Oil Cartel 60 $70 50 40 30 20 10 Price of crude oil (per barrel) Year Crude Oil Prices, 1947-2007 (in constant 2006 dollars) 1947195019601970198019902000 2007 Iran-Iraq War 9/11/01 Gulf War Iranian Revolution Rising world demand and Middle East tensions Yom Kippur War Arab Oil Embargo Series of OPEC output cuts OPEC 10% quota increase

15. Oligopoly in Practice  Oligopolies operate under legal restrictions in the form of antitrust policy. Antitrust policies are efforts undertaken by the government to prevent oligopolistic industries from becoming or behaving like monopolies. But many succeed in achieving tacit collusion.  Tacit collusion is limited by a number of factors, including:  large numbers of firms  complex products and pricing scheme  bargaining power of buyers  conflicts of interest among firms

16. Product Differentiation and Price Leadership  When collusion breaks down, there is a price war.  To limit competition, oligopolists often engage in product differentiation which is an attempt by a firm to convince buyers that its product is different from the products of other firms in the industry.  When products are differentiated, it is sometimes possible for an industry to achieve tacit collusion through price leadership.  Oligopolists often avoid competing directly on price, engaging in non-price competition through advertising and other means instead.

17. Product Differentiation and Price Leadership  In price leadership, one firm sets its price first, and other firms then follow.  Firms that have a tacit understanding not to compete on price often engage in intense non-price competition, using advertising and other means to try to increase their sales.

18. Oligopoly Notes

19. Definition An oligopoly isn’t just made up of large firms, it is about how many competitors there are An oligopoly isn’t just made up of large firms, it is about how many competitors there are

20. Definition Imperfect competition – firms compete but also possess market power which allows them to affect market prices Imperfect competition – firms compete but also possess market power which allows them to affect market prices Examples: Examples:

21. Definition Why are they so prevalent? Why are they so prevalent? Weaker form of monopolies Weaker form of monopolies Existence of _____________________ (gives bigger producers a cost advantage over smaller ones) Existence of _____________________ (gives bigger producers a cost advantage over smaller ones) – When this is in effect, they lead to monopoly – When this is weak, it leads to an industry with a small number of firms

22. Understanding Oligopoly Duopoly – Duopoly – – Duopolist is each firm Collusion – Collusion – Cartel – Cartel –

23. Understanding Oligopoly If only two firms in the industry, each would realize that by producing more, it would drive down the market price If only two firms in the industry, each would realize that by producing more, it would drive down the market price So each firm would, like a monopolist, realize that profits would be higher if it and its rival limited their production So each firm would, like a monopolist, realize that profits would be higher if it and its rival limited their production So how much will the two firms produce? So how much will the two firms produce?

24. Understanding Oligopoly Could engage in collusion and cooperate to raise their joint profits Could engage in collusion and cooperate to raise their joint profits Ex. Ex. They may also engage in non-cooperative behavior, ignoring the effects of their actions on each others’ profits. They may also engage in non-cooperative behavior, ignoring the effects of their actions on each others’ profits.

25. Understanding Oligopoly By acting as if they were a single monopolist, oligopolists can maximize their combined profits. So there is an incentive to form a ____. By acting as if they were a single monopolist, oligopolists can maximize their combined profits. So there is an incentive to form a ____. However, each firm has an incentive to cheat— to produce more than it is supposed to under the cartel agreement. So there are two principal outcomes: successful ___________ or behaving __________________ by cheating. However, each firm has an incentive to cheat— to produce more than it is supposed to under the cartel agreement. So there are two principal outcomes: successful ___________ or behaving __________________ by cheating. When firms ignore the effects of their actions on each others’ profits, they engage in non- cooperative behavior. It is likely to be easier to achieve informal collusion when firms in an industry face capacity constraints. When firms ignore the effects of their actions on each others’ profits, they engage in non- cooperative behavior. It is likely to be easier to achieve informal collusion when firms in an industry face capacity constraints.

26. Competing in Prices vs. Competing in Quantities When firms ignore the effects of their actions on each others’ profits, they engage in non- cooperative behavior. It is likely to be easier to achieve informal collusion when firms in an industry face capacity constraints. When firms ignore the effects of their actions on each others’ profits, they engage in non- cooperative behavior. It is likely to be easier to achieve informal collusion when firms in an industry face capacity constraints. Firms may decide to engage in ___________ or ____________________. Firms may decide to engage in ___________ or ____________________.

27. Competing in Prices vs. Competing in Quantities  The basic insight of the ____________________ is that when firms are restricted in how much they can produce, it is easier for them to avoid excessive competition and to “divvy up” the market, thereby pricing above marginal cost and earning profits.  It is easier for them to achieve an outcome that looks like collusion without a formal agreement.

28. Competing in Prices vs. Competing in Quantities The logic behind the ________________is that when firms produce perfect substitutes and have sufficient capacity to satisfy demand when price is equal to ___________, then each firm will be compelled to engage in competition by undercutting its rival’s price until the price reaches marginal cost—that is, perfect competition. The logic behind the ________________is that when firms produce perfect substitutes and have sufficient capacity to satisfy demand when price is equal to ___________, then each firm will be compelled to engage in competition by undercutting its rival’s price until the price reaches marginal cost—that is, perfect competition.

29. Kinked Demand Curve  An oligopolist who believes she will lose a substantial number of sales if she reduces output and increases her price, but will gain only a few additional sales if she increases output and lowers her price away from the tacit collusion outcome, faces a kinked demand curve—very flat above the kink and very steep below the kink.  It illustrates how tacit collusion can make an oligopolist unresponsive to changes in marginal cost within a certain range when those changes are unique to her.

30. Kinked Demand Curve Q* P* Quantity Price, cost marginal revenue X W Y D Z MR MC 2 1 1. Any marginal cost in this region 2. … corresponds to this level of output Tacit collusion outcome

31. The Ups and Downs of the Oil Cartel 60 $70 50 40 30 20 10 Price of crude oil (per barrel) Year Crude Oil Prices, 1947-2007 (in constant 2006 dollars) 1947195019601970198019902000 2007 Iran-Iraq War 9/11/01 Gulf War Iranian Revolution Rising world demand and Middle East tensions Yom Kippur War Arab Oil Embargo Series of OPEC output cuts OPEC 10% quota increase

32. Oligopoly in Practice  Oligopolies operate under legal restrictions in the form of antitrust policy.  Antitrust policies are efforts undertaken by the government to prevent oligopolistic industries from becoming or behaving like monopolies. But many succeed in achieving tacit collusion.  Tacit collusion is limited by a number of factors, including:

33. Product Differentiation and Price Leadership  When collusion breaks down, there is a ____________.  To limit competition, oligopolists often engage in _____________________which is an attempt by a firm to convince buyers that its product is different from the products of other firms in the industry.  When products are differentiated, it is sometimes possible for an industry to achieve tacit collusion through price leadership.  Oligopolists often avoid competing directly on price, engaging in non-price competition through advertising and other means instead.

34. Product Differentiation and Price Leadership  In price leadership, one firm sets its price first, and other firms then follow.  Firms that have a tacit understanding not to compete on price often engage in intense non-price competition, using advertising and other means to try to increase their sales.