2. Higher Human Biology Chapter 23 Removal of materials from the blood

3. Excretion Excretion is the elimination of waste products from metabolism Carbon dioxide is a waste product produced during respiration Its removal from the lungs is an example of excretion.

4. Role of the lungs Cells produce carbon dioxide during aerobic respiration It diffuses to blood plasma CO 2 forms bicarbonate ions These ions enter red blood cells in the pulmonary circulation Carbonic acid is formed An enzyme then breaks down the acid to release CO 2 This then diffuses out of the blood and into the lungs.

5. Diffusion in the alveoli

6. Role of the liver Regulates the level of glucose in the blood De-amination of some proteins Excess glucose stored as glycogen Some plasma proteins are synthesised Liver maintains a stable internal environment Liver provides cells with optimum conditions

7. Detoxification of toxic materials Detoxification Chemical alteration Drugs Rendered inactive Products excreted in bile or through kidney Chemical breakdown Alcohol Converted by liver into Acetyl CoA Acetyl CoA used in respiration Chemical attachment Food preservatives attached to a. acids by liver Acts as molecular label Recognised as waste by kidney and excreted

8. Detoxification of toxic materials Foreign particles for example bacterial cells are removed by macrophages which line the liver’s blood vessels

9. Removal & excretion of bilirubin When red blood cells reach the end of their 120 day life span, they are destroyed by macrophage cells in the liver, bone marrow and spleen Haemoglobin is broken by these cells into a yellow pigment called bilirubin which is released into the blood giving plasma its faint yellow colour.

10. Removal & excretion of bilirubin It is in this conjugated form that bilirubin is added to bile and becomes bile pigment. When bile pigment passes into the small intestine, bile salts aid digestion by emulsifying lipids. However, bile pigment (conjugated bilirubin) does not perform a useful role in digestion. Its release in bile is a form of excretion. In the gut, bilirubin is converted by bacteria to the brown pigment that gives faeces their characteristic colour.

11. Jaundice Accumulation of bilirubin in the bloodstream Liver suffers a disease which prevents its cells from absorbing bilirubin Bile duct becomes blocked Excessively high rate of red blood cells occurs

12. Production of urea De-amination of amino acids in the liver Amino acids broken down to form ammonia and an organic acid Organic acid may be pyruvic or one of Kreb’s cycle intermediates It can then enter the respiratory pathway.

13. Deamination De-amination needs oxygen It produces an organic acid It produces ammonia which goes to the ornithine cycle.

14. Urea production During the conversion of ammonia into urea, two molecules of ammonia and one molecule of carbon dioxide combine to form one molecule of urea and one of water. Assisting this process there is a cyclical conversion of ornithine into citrulline, arginine, and then back to ornithine again.

15. Ornithine cycle This shows how ammonia is converted to urea Ornithine is constantly regenerated.

16. Structure of the Nephron distal convoluted tubule proximal convoluted tubule Loop of Henle

17. Role of the Kidneys

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