1. Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices 2e
Chapter 5
Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices 2e
By Lowell Barrington
Political Systems and Their Rules  1

2. Learning Objectives
Define key concepts such as political institution, democracy, authoritarianism, totalitarianism, and federal versus unitary systems.
Explain the role of a constitution, and understand the concept of constitutionalism.
Discuss the general type of political system and important constitutional issues in the TIC cases.
Categorize each TIC case as having either a unitary or a federal system.

3. Political Institutions
Regime (Political System) Types
Democracy
Selection of government officials through free and fair elections
The balance of majority rule and minority protection
Limitations on government action
Variants of democracy
Majoritarian, consensus
European, Westminster, American and Latin American models

4. Political Institutions
Regime (Political System) Types
Totalitarianism
Seeks the atomization of society (Arendt)
Emphasizes mass mobilization
Official ideology
Single political party
Reliance on terror to maintain order
Control of communications
Control over the means of force in society
Command economy

5. Think and Discuss
Look at the list of criteria associated with free and fair elections. How do American elections measure up based on these criteria? 5

6. Political Institutions
Regime (Political System) Types
Authoritarianism
Presence of a dominant leader or small group of leaders
Limited political participation
Degree of autonomy of society from state control
Lack of ideology
Limited control over the economy
Variants of authoritarianism
Military, party, bureaucratic

7. Political Institutions
Regime (Political System) Types
Semiauthoritarianism/Semidemocracy
Democracy is incorporated into an otherwise authoritarian system

8. The Constitution: A Regime’s Rules for Making Rules
Rule of Law
A constitution add legitimacy to a system
Constitutionalism
A central concept in the U.S. and other democracies
Constitutions are designed to limit the power of government
Government officials must follow the laws of the land
Upholding these limitations and following these laws is a key source of legitimacy

9. Think and Discuss
Is the U.S. Constitution really as vague as the previous discussion suggests? Provide specific examples from the U.S. Constitution to support your position. 9

10. Levels of Government Unitary versus Federal Arrangements
Unitary: Lower levels of government have no powers reserved to them.
Federal: Lower levels of government share powers with the central government or have certain powers of their own.
Local Government
Exists in federal and unitary systems
Oversees “day-to-day” municipal governing
Devolving Government Powers from Central Governments to Lower Levels

11. Topic in Countries The United Kingdom
“Westminster democracy,” highly majoritarian
Constitution is not in a single written document; a collection of acts, legal opinions, and customs
Despite significant devolution of powers to regions, remains a unitary state

12. In Theory and Practice Veto Points in the United Kingdom
Individuals or collective political bodies whose failure to accept a policy change results in the rejection of the proposed change
Parliamentary systems generally have fewer veto points than do presidential systems (see Chapter 6), and unicameral (single-chamber) legislatures have fewer veto points than bicameral ones
Thatcher took advantage by making significant social welfare policy changes

13. Topic in Countries Germany
Consensus democracy; combination of coalition governments, federalism, and corporatism
The constitution (Basic Law) lays out both social welfare protections and limits on government
“Cooperative federalism” with significant powers for the Länder

14. Topic in Countries India
Parliamentary democracy; system has evolved from one-party dominant to multiparty
Constitution is long, detailed, and heavily amended; federal system with strong central government
Federal system (28 federal units), but the central government has strong powers; three levels of government

15. Topic in Countries Mexico
Party-authoritarian system until recently; today an unconsolidated democracy
Constitution originally written in 1917; prohibits the president and legislators from running for reelection; provides for checks and balances that became important when PRI lost its dominance
Federal system with 31 federal units (estados) and one federal district; estados dependent on central government for revenue

16. In Theory and Practice Political Change in Mexico and Easton’s Systems Theory
“Old Institutionalism” in political science had focused on describing institutions
The behavioralism movement that began in the 1950s focused on explaining political outcomes
David Easton proposed that all political systems translate inputs (demands and supports) into outputs (policy)
The system responds to changes in supports and demands
Easton’s model pays little attention to the design of the institutions themselves

17. In Theory and Practice Political Change in Mexico and Easton’s Systems Theory
Mexico and Easton’s Approach
In the latter part of the twentieth century, changes in demands and supports put pressure on the government of Mexico
Resulted in policy changes, including the political liberalization of the 1970s-1990s
Even without looking “inside” the Mexican system, Easton’s framework helps explain the changes that led to the PRI losing its dominance over Mexican politics

18. Topic in Countries Brazil
Has alternated between democracy and military authoritarianism; remains an unconsolidated democracy with traditional elites maintaining significant power
Current constitution written in 1988; enshrined privileges for the outgoing military government
Federal system with 26 federal units (estados); more power for lower levels than in Mexico; preserves power of local elites

19. Topic in Countries Nigeria
Combination of majoritarian and consensus democracy; has alternated between democracy and military authoritarianism; democratic status is increasingly unclear
Most recent constitution written in 1999; emphasis on the need for unity in a country with prevalent identity and political divisions since independence
Formerly an ethno-federal system; now more of an American-style federal system; provides a certain degree of cross-cutting identities among the otherwise complementary identity divisions

20. Topic in Countries Russia
Democratic following collapse of USSR; creeping authoritarianism; semiauthoritarian system today
New constitution since December 1993; Putin not seeking third term gave some legitimacy to the constitution in an otherwise increasingly authoritarian system
Federal system; since Putin came to power, central government has increased its power versus the regions (which now number 83)

21. Topic in Countries China
Under Mao Zedong, often considered a totalitarian system; since Deng Xiaoping, more like a party-authoritarian system
Evidence that a constitution, even one that is somewhat followed, does not equal democracy
Unitary state with 31 regions; some devolution, but still not a federal system

22. In Theory and Practice China and Skocpol’s States and Social Revolutions
Theda Skocpol’s 1979 book set the stage for a new focus on political institutions
Skocpol saw state institutions as an important independent variable, not a “black box” like in Easton’s approach
Led to calls to “bring the state back in”
China is a Main Case in Skocpol’s Book
Collapse of Imperial System due to the state relying on local leaders for military support
Her argument has relevance today, as China relies more and more on regional and local officials

23. Topic in Countries Iran
Theocracy; under former President Khatami, attempts at reform; under President Ahmadinejad, a return to hardline policies
Constitution after the Revolution implemented a theocracy, including the position of Supreme Leader; overhauled in 1989 (abolished prime min.)
Unitary state with 30 regions; powerful provincial leaders; central government has overseen “controlled decentralization”

24. In Theory and Practice Iran and Rational Choice New Institutionalism
Focuses on theories that use political institutions to explain political outcomes
Three main variants:
Sociological N.I.
Historical N.I.
Rational Choice N.I.
Rational Choice New Institutionalism
Sees political institutions as the product of rational choices by political actors
Existing rules constrain decision makers, but they may also try to change these arrangements

25. In Theory and Practice Iran and Rational Choice New Institutionalism
Rational Choice N.I. and Iran
Many in the West portray Iranian leaders as irrational fanatics
But, Rational Choice N.I. would see them as much more rational, designing the rules of their theocracy to maximize the goals of maintaining power and controlling society
Reformers versus Hardliners
Rational Choice N.I. explains how reformers wanting to change existing rules are constrained
It also explains the hardliners’ use of the existing rules to block pro-reform candidates