AP Psych Exam Review Walenga.

AP Psych Exam Review Walenga

Research Methods: Important Terms
Hypothesis Operational definitions Variables Theory Population Representative sample Stratified sample Random sampling Sampling bias Experiments Independent variable Dependent variable Confounding variables Experimental group Control group Random assignment Participant bias/subject expectancy effect Experimenter bias/expectancy Single-blind and double-blind design Placebo effects Replication Descriptive statistics Frequency distribution Measures of central tendency Mean Median Mode Normal distribution and curve Measures of variability Range Standard deviation Correlation Correlation coefficient Positive correlation Negative correlation Illusionary correlation Inferential statistics Statistically significant Ethical Guidelines Consent Debriefed Confidentiality No psychological or physical harm Use of animals ??

Research Methods

Correlation Coefficient
Indicates direction of relationship (+ or -) Correlation coefficient r = +0.65 Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00)

Normal Curve The mean, median, and mode of a normal distribution are identical and fall exactly in the center of the curve. This means that any score below the mean falls in the lower 50% of the distribution of scores and any score above the mean falls in the upper 50%. Also, the shape of the curve allows for a simple breakdown of sections. For instance, we know that 68% of the population fall between one and two standard deviations (See Measures of Variability Below) from the mean and that 95% of the population fall between two standard deviations from the mean. Figure 8.1 shows the percentage of scores that fall between each standard deviation. As an example, lets look at the normal curve associated with IQ Scores (See Figure 8.2). The mean, median, and mode of a Wechsler’s IQ Score is 100, which means that 50% of IQs fall at 100 or below and 50% fall at 100 or above. Since 68% of scores on a normal curve fall within one standard deviation and since an IQ score has a standard deviation of 15, we know that 68% of IQs fall between 85 and Comparing the estimated percentages on the normal curve with the IQ scores, you can determine the percentile rank of scores merely by looking at the normal curve. For example, a person who scores at 115 performed better than 87% of the population, meaning that a score of 115 falls at the 87th percentile. Add up the percentages below a score of 115 and you will see how this percentile rank was determined. See if you can find the percentile rank of a score of 70.

Skewed Distribution An asymmetrical distribution of scores, such as a curve with a bump on the left and tail to the right or most scores are bunched to the left or right of the mean The mean is the largest or the mode or median are smaller than the mean The mean is a less useful measure; while the median is more useful 90 475 710 70 Mode Median Mean One Family Income per family in thousands of dollars Skew. The skew of a distribution refers to how the curve leans. When a curve has extreme scores on the right hand side of the distribution, it is said to be positively skewed. In other words, when high numbers are added to an otherwise normal distribution, the curve gets pulled in an upward or positive direction. When the curve is pulled downward by extreme low scores, it is said to be negatively skewed. The more skewed a distribution is, the more difficult it is to interpret.

Measures of Variability
Indicate the dispersion or spread in a data set. How much the scores in a set of data vary from: a. Each Other b. the Mean Tell you if the scores are very different from one another or if they cluster around the mean. Range The difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of data. Extreme scores can radically affect the range of a data set. Standard Deviation Reflects the average distance between every score and the mean. Tell you how different the scores are from the mean. Tells you whether scores are packed together or dispersed. Increase variability = increase in standard deviation The variance is the average of the squared differences of each score from the mean. To calculate the variance, the difference between each score and the mean is squared and then added together. This sum is then divided by the number of scores minus one. When the square root is taken of the variance we call this new statistic the standard deviation. Since the variance represents the squared differences, the standard deviation represents the true differences and is therefore easier to interpret and much more commonly used. Since the standard deviation relies on the mean of the distribution, however, it is also affected by extreme scores in a skewed distribution.

Statistical Significance
Results are “statistically significant” when the probability that the findings are due to chance is very low. EX: If the difference between two group means is statistically significant, a researcher would conclude that the difference most likely exists in the population of interest. If the difference is not statistically significant, a researcher would conclude that the difference occurred by chance – possibly because of an unrepresentative sample or the presence of confounding variables. “Very Low” means less than 5 chances in 100 or P < 0.05 level of significance

Biology: Important Terms
Neuron Glial cells Dendrites Nucleus Soma Axon Myelin Axon terminal buttons Synapse/synaptic cleft Neurotransmitters Excitatory Inhibitory Receptor site Reuptake Neural networks Types of neurons Afferent (sensory) neurons Efferent (motor) neurons Neural Communication Resting potential (Polarization) Action potential Depolarization Repolarization Hyperpolarization Threshold All or none principle Refractory Period Agonists vs antagonists

Neuron Structure Approx 15,000 synapses per neuron (DETECT) (ANNOUNCE) Neurons vary in the amount of info they receive and transmit. Some have an extremely large social circle and receive/transmit thousands of messages. Others have only a few connections.. Myelin sheath also insulates neurons from each other. Neurons do NOT touch each other - the space in between is called the synapse.

How Neurons Communicate: Action Potential

How Neurons Communicate: Synaptic Transmission

Agonist vs. Antagonist

Neurotransmitters

Peripheral Nervous System Somatic Nervous System Afferent (sensory) neurons Efferent (motor) neurons Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System Nervous System Central Nervous System Brain Spinal Cord

The Brain Lateralization Corpus callosum Cerebral cortex Frontal lobe Motor cortex Parietal lobe Somatosensory cortex Temporal lobe Occipital lobe Association areas Wernicke’s area Broca’s area Ablation Lesion Plasticity How Psychologists Look Into the Brain EEG CT or CAT scan MRI and fMRI TMS PET scan Endocrine System Hormones

Hemispheres Contralateral control: right controls left and vice versa.
Left Hemisphere: logic and sequential tasks; language. Right Hemisphere: spatial and creative tasks.

Split Brain Patients: Testing the Divided Brain

Development: Important Terms
Types of Studies Cross-sectional Longitudinal Early Physical Development Zygote Maturation Teratogen (FAS) Reflexes Temperament Cognitive Development: Piaget Schema Assimilation Accommodation Habituation Sensorimotor Object permanence Preoperational Egocentrism Animism Symbolic thinking Theory of Mind Autism Concrete Operational Conservation Cognitive Development: Elkind Adolescent egocentrism Personal fable Imaginary audience Invincibility fable Cognitive Development: Vygotsky Zone of proximal development Types of neurons Attachment: Harlow Harlow monkey experiment Contact comfort Attachment: Lorenz Critical period Imprinting Attachment: Ainsworth Strange situation Secure attachment Anxious/avoidant attachment Anxious/ambivalent attachment Attachment: Erikson Psychosocial development Attachment: parenting styles Authoritarian Permissive Authoritative Moral Development: Kohlberg Preconventional Conventional Postconventional

Behavioral Perspective Cognitive Perspective
SCHEMA cognitive frameworks that organize perceptions, such as concept of masculine and feminine Passive process - dominant influence during first few years of life As cognitive complexity develops, gender schema theory takes over. Starting around age 2 ½ , child accurately labels self as boy or girl, labels genders consistently, assigns occupations, toys, activities to stereotypical gender. By age 8, schema for gender is well developed

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Kubler-Ross’ Stages of Death and Dying

Cognition: Important Terms
Thinking and Mental Representations Concept Prototype Schema Script Mental model Cognitive map Thinking strategies Formal reasoning (deductive) algorithm Informal reasoning (inductive) Heuristic Availability heuristic Representative heuristic Anchoring/adjustment heuristic Problem Solving Means-ends analysis Analogies Incubation Insight Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental set Functional fixedness Confirmation bias Overconfidence Belief perseverance Illusory correlations Hindsight bias False consensus effect Language Syntax Semantics Phonemes Morphemes Development of Language BF Skinner and behavioral theory Noam Chomsky Universal grammar Overregularization or overgeneralization Sapir-Whorf Linguistic determinism Telegraphic speech: leave out articles/ prepositions eg. "I go store" = "I’m going to the store" Overgeneralization or Overregularization: "I goed to the store"

Mental Representations

Elements of Language

Development of Language

Memory: Important Terms
Retrieval Priming Retrieval cues and retrieval failure Encoding specificity principle Context dependent memories State dependent memory Mood congruence effect Tip of the tongue phenomenon Serial position effect Flashbulb memories Forgetting Ebbinghaus forgetting curve Retroactive interference Proactive interference Suppression Repression Anterograde amnesia Retrograde amnesia Alzheimer’s Plagues Acetylcholine Constructing Memories Loftus and misinformation effect Source amnesia Imagination inflation Long-term potentiation Encoding Storage Sensory Memory Iconic Echoic Short-Term Memory Working memory Maintenance rehearsal Chunking Long-Term Memory Elaborative rehearsal Explicit memory Episodic information Semantic information Hippocampus Implicit memory Procedural Cerebellum Improving Memory Mnemonics Acronyms Method of loci

(echoic = auditory info
(iconic = visual info) Sensory Memory (echoic = auditory info Automatic, not attention or interpretation Function = hold info long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics Capacity = large Duration = very brief; (visual info sec / auditory info = 3-4sec) External Events Sensory Input Attention & Encoding Function = info is actively worked on Capacity = 7 +/- 2 Duration = 20 sec; however, can increase it with maintenance rehearsal (conscious repetition of info either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage) Short-Term (WORKING) Memory Retrieval Encoding Memory = persistence of learning over time! Long-Term Memory Function = organizes and stores info; more passive form of storage Capacity = unlimited Duration =permanent????

Explicit (Declarative) Types of Long-Term Memory
Semantic Facts/General Knowledge Episodic Experienced events Procedural Skills Motor/Cognitive Classical Conditioning Explicit (Declarative) knowing you know something conscious recall Implicit (Non-declarative) knowing how to do something (but not know you know) without conscious recall Types of Long-Term Memory Medial Temporal Lobe / Hippocampus / Frontal Lobe Cerebellum

Interference Past Present Present Past
Interference - learning some items may interfere with learning other items. One memory competing with or replacing another memory Proactive Interference = Something learned earlier disrupts something learned later. Past Present EX: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today Retroactive Interference = Something learned later disrupts something learned earlier. Present Past EX: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number.

Memory Loss Anterograde amnesia – means forward; can’t form new memories. Effects of the accident are working forward in time and patient is unable to remember things that have happened since the accident Retrograde amnesia – means backward; can’t remember old memories . Hit by a car at noon on Tuesday. Patient regained consciousness Tuesday night and it is now Wednesday. Patient can’t remember the accident or anything that happened Tuesday morning before the accident.

Motivation: Important Terms
Theories Instinct theory Drive Reduction Need, Drive, Homeostasis Incentive theory Optimum Arousal Yerkes-Dodson law Maslow’s Hierarchy o f Needs Self-actualization Achievement and Work Self-efficacy Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation Flow Task Leadership vs. Social Leadership Industrial-organizational psychologists Personnel Organizational Hunger Lateral hypothalamus Orexin Ventromedial hypothalamus Leptin Ghrelin Glucose Insulin Set point theory Body weight Basal metabolic rate Anorexia nervosa Bulimia nervosa

Hypothalamus & Hormones
Tissue Response Orexin increase Hypothalamus Increases hunger Ghrelin increase Stomach Insulin increase Pancreas Leptin increase Fat cells Decreases hunger PPY increase Digestive tract The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that are related to hunger.

Yerkes-Dodson Law Some arousal is necessary
High arousal is helpful on easy tasks but harmful for difficult tasks. Keywords: Yerkes-Dodson law

Emotion: Important Terms
Stress Stress, Stressors, Strain Causes Approach-approach conflict Avoidance-avoidance conflict Approach-avoidance conflict Biological Aspects of Stress Adrenal glands Noripinephrine Epinephrine General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Alarm stage Resistive stage Exhaustive stage Beating Stress Perceived control Internal locus External locus Learned helplessness Optimistic vs. pessimistic explanatory styles Type A vs Type B personality Biofeedback and meditation Theories James-Lange theory Facial-feedback hypothesis Cannon-Bard theory Two-factor theory Transferred excitation (spill-over effect( Emotional Expression Paul Ekman and cultural expression Polygraph Biological Aspects of Emotion Amygdala Autonomic nervous system: Sympathetic and parasympathetic Anger Spill-over effect Catharsis hypothesis Frustration-aggression principle Happiness Feel-good, do-good phenomenon Subjective well-being Adaptation level phenomenon Relative deprivation

Stressor, Strain, Stress

The Stress Response System
The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland also respond to stress (slow) by triggering the outer adrenal glands to secrete glucocorticoids (cortisol).

The Stress Response System
Canon proposed that the stress response (fast) was a fight-or-flight response marked by the outpouring of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the inner adrenal glands, increasing heart and respiration rates, mobilizing sugar and fat, and dulling pain. OBJECTIVE 3| Identify and describe the dual-track system by which our body responds to stress, and give the three phases of the general adaptation syndrome.

Cognitive Appraisal

Sensation: Important Terms
Sensory Receptors Transduction Psychophysics Factors that Affect Sensation Absolute threshold Signal detection theory Difference threshold (just noticeable difference) Sensory adaptation Subliminal stimulation Sensory interaction Visual capture Vision Light waves Cornea, Pupil, Iris, Lens (Accommodation) Retina Photoreceptors: Rods, Cones (Fovea), Bipolar cells, Ganglion cells) Optic nerve (Blind spot) Primary visual cortex Feature detectors Parallel processing Color Vision Hue/color (wavelength) Intensity/Brightness (amplitude) Saturation (purity) Color Mixing: Subtractive vs. additive Trichromatic theory of color vision Opponent process theory of color vision Afterimage Hearing Sound waves Pitch (frequency) Loudness (amplitude) Timbre (purity) Outer ear: pinna, auditory canal, eardrum Middle ear: hammer, anvil, stirrup, oval window Inner ear: cochlea, basilar membrane, auditory nerve Frequency theory Place theory Volley principle Auditory localization Conduction hearing loss Sensorineural hearing loss Smell Olfactory nerves and olfactory bulb Taste Taste buds: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami Pain Gate-control theory Sensory homunculus Kinesthetic sense Vestibular sense Semicircular canals

Sensing the World: Basic Principles
Difference Threshold (just noticeable difference or jnd) = the lowest difference between two stimuli that person can detect 50% of the time. Weber’s Law = regardless of magnitude, two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for the difference to be noticeable. Light intensity – 8% Tone frequency - .3% Weight – 2% EX: Lemon Lab – if you lemon weighs 6 oz then the next lemon will have to weigh .12 oz heavier or .12 oz lighter in order to detect the difference between lemon JND varies according to the strength or intensity of the original stimulus. The greater the stimulus the greater the change necessary to produce JND EX: If a farmer grows giant lemons, a greater difference threshold will be needed to determine a change from a 500 oz lemon, such as a change of 10 oz versus .12 oz with a 6 oz lemon.

Sensing the World: Basic Principles
Difference Threshold (just noticeable difference or jnd) = the lowest difference between two stimuli that person can detect 50% of the time. Fechner’s Law – larger and larger increases in stimulus intensity are required to produce perceptible increments in the magnitude of sensation. Constant increments in stimulus intensity produce smaller and smaller increases in perceived magnitude of sensation. Scene #1: dark room – add one light bulb – difference in light is striking Scene #2: same room – add a second light bulb – the amount of light is doubled but the room does not seem twice as bright Scene #3: same room – add a third light bulb, it adds just as much light as the second, but you barely notice the difference Three equal increases in stimulus intensity produces progressively smaller differences in the magnitude of sensation

Visual Processing: light waves cornea pupil (iris) lens retina (rods and cones – trichromatic theory bipolar ganglion – start of opponent process) optic nerve (blind spot) thalamus occipital lobe (visual cortex – end of opponent process) feature detectors abstraction (cells in parietal and temporal lobe combine info from feature detectors) PERCEPTION

Theories of Color Vision: Trichromatic Theory
Wavelength Input Cone Signal to Brain “Blue” Blue “Green” Equal Parts Red and Green = Yellow “Red”

Pitch – high or lowness of sound
The greater the number of cycles per second, the higher the pitch. Longer the wave = lower the pitch / Shorter the wave = higher the pitch Frequency – number of cycles per second as expressed in the unit Hertz. Hertz – A unit expressing the frequency of sound waves. One Hertz, or 1Hz, equals one cycle per second. Human hearing  detect sounds ranging in frequency from 20Hz – 20,000Hz

Loudness The higher the amplitude of a wave, the louder the sound.
Amplitude – strength or height of wave. Decibel – A unit expressing the loudness of a sound, abbreviated dB. Perceived loudness doubles about every 10 decibels. The absolute threshold for hearing is arbitrarily defined as 0 decibels.

Place Theory (Traveling Wave Theory)
Perceiving Pitch Place Theory (Traveling Wave Theory) = pitch determined by point of maximal vibration on basilar membrane. Different pitches activate different places of the cochlea’s basilar membrane. Only applicable to high pitched sounds – over 5000 Hz (low pitched sounds do not localize as well) Frequency Theory = frequency of a tone (or pitch) matches the rate at which the hair cells fire or the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerves (i.e., 1KHz tone cause hair cells to fire 1k times/sec) Only applicable to sounds under 1000 Hz (individual neurons cannot fire faster than 1000 times/sec) Volley Theory = receptors in the ear fire in sequence. Several neurons together, firing in sequence, can send a more rapid series of impulses to the brain than one.

Hot = warm ( firing) +cold ( firing) Wet = pressure + cold
Touch Sensory receptors located around the roots of hair cells fire when surface of skin is touched (mechanical and thermal energy). The sense of touch is a mix of four distinct skin senses—pressure, warmth, cold, and pain. Only pressure has identifiable receptors. All other skin sensations are variations of pressure, warmth, cold and pain. Two pathways: #1 – signals from thermal receptors + pain signals; #2 – signals from tactile stimulation (pressure) Hot = warm ( firing) +cold ( firing) Wet = pressure + cold Tickling itch = pressure + pain Preview Question 13: How do we sense touch and sense our body’s position and movement? How do we experience pain?

Sensory Homunculus Homunculus - Latin for "little human“; any representation of a human being. The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear of the frontal lobes that control voluntary movements. The Sensory Cortex (parietal cortex) receives information from skin surface and sense organs. Preview Question 8: What are the functions of the cerebral cortex?

Gate-Control Theory Spinal cord contains neurological “gates” that either block pain or allow it to be sensed. Small fibers (pain + temp) = open gate = pain. When tissue is injured, the small fibers activate and open the neural gate Slow pathway – lags a second or two behind the fast system; longer lasting, aching pain Fast pathway – registers pain and relays it to the cortex in a fraction of a second Large fibers (tactile – pressure or vibration) = close gate = no pain. Stimulate (massage, rub, acupuncture) gate closing activity to treat pain. Also closed by signals from the brain – attention and expectations Endorphins can also close gate Brain (attention and expectations) also close gate

Perception: Important Terms
Perceptual Organization Bottom-up processing Top-down processing Gestalt laws Depth Perception Monocular cues Binocular cues Retinal disparity Convergence Perceptual Constancies Shape constancy Color constancy Brightness constancy Size constancy Perception of Movement Stroboscopic motion Phi phenomenon Selective attention Change blindness Inattentional blindness Cocktail party effect Observe Characteristics Expectations Perceptual set Context effects Cognitive style Field independent (sharpeners) Field dependent (levelers Culture

Consciousness: Important Terms
Levels Conscious Preconscious Unconscious Circadian rhythms Stages of sleep NREM REM Functions REM rebound Restorative theory Adaptive theory Behavioral theory Sleep Disorders Narcolepsy Sleep apnea Sleep walking (somnambulism) Night terrors Nightmares Dream Theories Psychoanalysis Manifest content Latent content Activation-synthesis theory Hypnosis Posthypnotic suggestions Posthypnotic amnesia Higard’s split consciousness Hidden observer Psychoactive drugs Blood-brain barrier Agonist vs. antagonist Psychological dependency Physical dependency Withdrawal symptoms Tolerance

Sleep Stages 1 2 3 4 3 2 REM 2 3 4 3 2 REM 2 REM 2 REM
Measuring sleep: About every 90 minutes, we pass through a cycle of five distinct sleep stages. Sleep is divided into two major states: NREM and REM. With each 90-minute cycle, stage 4 sleep decreases and the duration of REM sleep increases. REM REM 2 REM 2 REM It takes about minutes to pass through the 5 stages. The brain’s waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in. The first four sages and know as NREM sleep.. The fifth stage is called REM sleep. Preview Question 4: What is the biological rhythm of our sleep?

Learning: Important Terms
Behaviorism Classical Conditioning Pavlov Unconditioned (UCS/US) Unconditioned response (UCR/UR) Neutral stimulus (NS) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Short-delayed conditioning Generalization Discrimination Extinction Spontaneous recovery (reconditioning) Second or Higher order conditioning Watson and Little Albert Phobias Flooding Systematic desensitization Conditioned taste aversion Biological preparedness Operant Conditioning Instrumental Learning / Law of effect Reinforcement Positive Negative Punishment Primary reinforcer Secondary (conditioned) reinforcer BF Skinner Shaping Continuous reinforcement Partial (intermittent) reinforcement Fixed ratio Variable-ratio Fixed –interval Variable-interval Behavior modification Token economy Overjustification effect Latent learning Observational Learning Modeling Mirror neurons Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

Intelligence: Important Terms
Psychometrics Galton / Eugenics Spearman / g-factor Factor analysis Sternberg / triarchic theory Analytical Creative Practical Gardner / multiple intelligence Emotional intelligence Creativity Divergent thinking Convergent thinking Mental retardation Autism spectrum disorder Savant syndrome Testing Binet and IQ [Mental age (MA) / Chronological age (CA)] X 100 Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Normal curve Aptitude tests Achievement tests Reliability Validity Standardization Flynn Effect defined originally the ratio of mental age (ma - child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 IQ = ma/ca x 100 EX: 8/10 x 100 = IQ of 80 for a ten year old with a mental age of 8.

Personality: Important Terms
Psychodynamic / Freud Preconscious Conscious Unconscious ID Pleasure principle Ego Reality principle Superego Defense mechanisms Psychosexual stages: oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage (Oedipus complex, Electra complex, identification), latency stage, genital stage Fixation Neo-Freudians Carl Jung Collective unconscious Introvert vs. extrovert Alfred Adler Inferiority complex Birth order Karen Horney Womb envy Projective tests Rorschach Inkblot TAT test Trait Theory Gordon Allport Central (source) traits Secondary (surface) traits Raymod Cattell Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire Factor analysis Hans Eysenck Introversion-extraversion Emotional-stability Big Five Model: Openness, Cosncientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism Objective Tests Social Cognitive Theory Julian Rotter Internal vs. external locus of control Learned helplessness Albert Bandura Reciprocal determinsm Self-efficacy Humanist Theory Self-concept Self-esteem Self-serving bias Carl Rogers Actualizing tendency Growth-promoting environment: acceptance (unconditional positive regard), genuineness (congruency between ideal and real self), empathy Abraham Maslow Self-actualization Hierarchyuof nedds

Assessing Traits: Factor Analysis
Statistical method that finds relationships among many different or diverse items and allows them to be grouped together FACTOR ANALYSIS EXAMPLES Charles Spearman, who hypothesized that the enormous variety of tests of mental ability--measures of mathematical skill, vocabulary, other verbal skills, artistic skills, logical reasoning ability, etc.--could all be explained by one underlying "factor" of general intelligence that he called g. Various measures of the activity of the autonomic nervous system--heart rate, blood pressure, etc. Increase and decrease together. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator EX: Keirsey Temperament Sorter Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Inventory Excitement Impatient Irritable Boisterous Basic trait Superficial traits Some Examples of Factor-Analysis Problems 1. Factor analysis was invented nearly 100 years ago by psychologist Charles Spearman, who hypothesized that the enormous variety of tests of mental ability--measures of mathematical skill, vocabulary, other verbal skills, artistic skills, logical reasoning ability, etc.--could all be explained by one underlying "factor" of general intelligence that he called g. He hypothesized that if g could be measured and you could select a subpopulation of people with the same score on g, in that subpopulation you would find no correlations among any tests of mental ability. In other words, he hypothesized that g was the only factor common to all those measures. It was an interesting idea, but it turned out to be wrong. Today the College Board testing service operates a system based on the idea that there are at least three important factors of mental ability--verbal, mathematical, and logical abilities--and most psychologists agree that many other factors could be identified as well. 2. Consider various measures of the activity of the autonomic nervous system--heart rate, blood pressure, etc. Psychologists have wanted to know whether, except for random fluctuation, all those measures move up and down together--the "activation" hypothesis. Or do groups of autonomic measures move up and down together, but separate from other groups? Or are all the measures largely independent? An unpublished analysis of mine found that in one data set, at any rate, the data fitted the activation hypothesis quite well. 3. Suppose many species of animal (rats, mice, birds, frogs, etc.) are trained that food will appear at a certain spot whenever a noise--any kind of noise--comes from that spot. You could then tell whether they could detect a particular sound by seeing whether they turn in that direction when the sound appears. Then if you studied many sounds and many species, you might want to know on how many different dimensions of hearing acuity the species vary. One hypothesis would be that they vary on just three dimensions--the ability to detect high-frequency sounds, ability to detect low-frequency sounds, and ability to detect intermediate sounds. On the other hand, species might differ in their auditory capabilities on more than just these three dimensions. For instance, some species might be better at detecting sharp click-like sounds while others are better at detecting continuous hiss-like sounds. 4. Suppose each of 500 people, who are all familiar with different kinds of automobiles, rates each of 20 automobile models on the question, "How much would you like to own that kind of automobile?" We could usefully ask about the number of dimensions on which the ratings differ. A one-factor theory would posit that people simply give the highest ratings to the most expensive models. A two-factor theory would posit that some people are most attracted to sporty models while others are most attracted to luxurious models. Three-factor and four-factor theories might add safety and reliability. Or instead of automobiles you might choose to study attitudes concerning foods, political policies, political candidates, or many other kinds of objects. 5. Rubenstein (1986) studied the nature of curiosity by analyzing the agreements of junior-high-school students with a large battery of statements such as "I like to figure out how machinery works" or "I like to try new kinds of food." A factor analysis identified seven factors: three measuring enjoyment of problem-solving, learning, and reading; three measuring interests in natural sciences, art and music, and new experiences in general; and one indicating a relatively low interest in money. A complicated statistical method that finds relationships among many different or diverse items and allows them to be grouped together. Use factor analysis to find relationships among lists of adjectives that described personality differences. Sympathetic Appreciative Tactful Feeling Type Personality Impulsive

Abnormal Psychology: Important Terms
Medical Model Biopsychosocial Perspective Diathesis-Stress Model Neurotic vs psychotic Psychological disorder: atypical, disturbing, maladaptive, personal distress, unjustifiable DSM-IV Rosenhan study Biological Perspective (brain abnormalities, chemical imbalances, heritability, drug therapy, ECT, Deep Brain Stimulation Psychodynamic Perspective (repression, unconscious conflicts, free association, dream analysis, transference, resistance) Cognitive Perspective (irrational thoughts, self-defeating thoughs, rational emotive behavior therapy (albert ellis), cognitive theraphy (aaron beck), cognitive-behavioral therapy Humanistic Perspective (distorted sense of self, growth-thwarting environment, client centered therapy, active listening) Behavioral Perspective (maladaptive behaviors, counterconditioning (flooding, systematic desensitization, aversive conditioning(, behavior modification (token economy) Anxiety Disorders (generalized anxiety, phobias, OCD, Panic, PSD) Lack of serotonin and GABA Too much glutamate Overactive amygdala and underactive frontal lobe Dissociative Disorders (DID, dissociative amnesia, dissociateve fugue) Eye movement desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Somatoform Disorders (conversion, hypochondriasis, somatization, pain , body dysmorphic) Mood Disorders (unipolar – major depressive, dysthymic, seasonal affective , and bipolar) Low serotonin and low norepinephrine = depression Low serotonin and high norepinephrine = mania Ruminating response style; Learned helplessness SSRI’s, such as prozac, zoloft, paxil ECT or TMS Schizophrenia Positive symptoms – hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking Negative symptoms – apathy, no emotion, expressionless faces, rigid bodies, social withdrawal, no speech Types: paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, residual Too much dopamine or dopamine receptors Prenatal viruses Antipsycholtics, such as Thorazine or Clozaril Personality Disorders Cluster A: Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal Cluster B: Antisocial, Borderline, Narcissistic, Histrionic Cluster C: Dependent, OCD, Avoidant Telegraphic speech: leave out articles/ prepositions eg. "I go store" = "I’m going to the store" Overgeneralization or Overregularization: "I goed to the store"

Social Psychology: Important Terms
Attribution Fundamental attribution error (actor-observer bias) Attitude Central route to persuasion Peripheral route to persuasion Cognitive dissonance Foot-in-the-door versus door-in-the-face technique Role-playing (Zimbardo) Group Behavior Deindividuation Social facilitation vs. social interference (inhibition) Social loafing Group polarization Groupthink Conformity Normative social influence (Asch experiment) Informational social influence Obedience (Milgram experiment) Aggression Frustration-aggression principle Catharsis hypothesis Spill-over effect Altruism Reciprocity norm Bystander effect Diffusion of responsibility Prejudice Stereotyping Discrimination In-group bias Self-fulfilling prophecy Scapegoat theory Just world phenomenon Other race effect Conflict resolution Social trap Prisoner’s dilemma GRIT Attraction Passionate vs. companionate love Similarity Proximity Mere exposure effect Physical attractiveness

Fundamental Attribution Error
How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we react to it Negative behavior Situational attribution “Maybe that driver is ill.” Dispositional attribution “Crazy driver!” Tolerant reaction (proceed cautiously, allow driver a wide berth) Unfavorable reaction (speed up and race past the other driver, give a dirty look)

Cognitive Dissonance

Social Facilitation/Interference
Worsened performance of nondominant responses (social Interference) Improved performance of dominant responses (social facilitation) Increased drive or arousal Presence of others Linked social interference and facilitation to arousal level High arousal improves simple or well-learned tasks High arousal worsens complex or poorly-learned task

Group Polarization example: risky-shift effect
groups with a tendency to take risks exaggerate risk-taking decisions groups with a tendency to be conservative exaggerate safe responses

IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN PSYCHOLOGY
Kaley Schur

Charles Darwin (History of Psychology)
Theory of natural selection influences the modern evolutionary perspective

William Wundt (History of Psychology)
First psych research laboratory in GERMANY; pioneered the term introspection; where subjects reported what was happening to them

William James (History of Psychology)
Prominent in establishing psychology in the US. He emphasized studying the purpose or function of behavior and mental processes

G Stanley Hall (History of Psychology)
First psych research laboratory in the US; first president of the American Psychological Association (APA); taught by William James

Mary Whiton Calkins (History of Psychology)
Taught by William James as well; Denied a Ph.D at Harvard due to sexism; established a psych lab at Wellesley and served as first female president of the APA

Margaret Floy Washburn (History of Psychology)
First American woman to get a Ph.D in psychology; best known for her experimental work in animal behavior

Sigmund Freud (History of Psychology)
Founded the psychoanalytic school of thought and developed the theory of defense mechanisms, particularly repression; believed childhood experiences influence adult personality; believed dreams provided a particular important insight into unconscious motives

John B. Watson (History of Psychology)
Behaviorist who believed the only thing worth is observable behavior.

Paul Broca (Biological Bases of Behavior)
Discovered speech production is located in the lower left frontal lobe; coined Broca’s area which revolutionized the understanding of speech production

Carl Wernicke (Biological Bases of Behavior)
Discovered that damage to the left temporal lobe caused deficits in language comprehension; coined Wernike’s area

Roger Sperry (Biological Bases of Behavior)
Best known for work on split brain patients; particularly that the right and left hemisphere have specialized functions

Michael Gazzaniga (Biological Bases of Behavior)
Continued Sperry’s work on split brain patients

Ernst Weber (Sensation and Perception)
Discovered just noticeable difference and Weber’s law

Gustav Fechner (Sensation and Perception)
Demonstrated that mental processes can be quantified

David Hubel (Sensation and Perception)
Discovered feature detectors- specialized neurons in the occipital lobe that have the ability to respond to specific features of an image

Torton Wiesel (Sensation and Perception)
Teamed with Hubel to expand the knowledge of sensory processing and perception

Ernest Hilgard (States of Consciousness)
Renowned for his research on hypnosis and pain control, created the term disassociation when it came to hypnosis

Ivan Pavlov (Learning)
Originally studied digestion and is famous for his pioneering work on classical conditioning

John Garcia (Learning)
Famous for pioneering work on taste aversion; his perspective supports the evolutionary perspective that being biologically prepared to quickly associate nausea with food or drink is adaptive

Robert Rescorla (Learning)
Research indicated that the CS must be a reliable signal that predicts of the UCS; furthered Pavlov’s research

Edward Thorndike (Learning)
Conducted the first systematic investigation of animal behavior and coined the term “law of effect” which simply stated that satisfying behaviors are more likely to be repeated and vice versa

BF Skinner (Learning) Like Watson, believed in observable behavior and came up with Operant Conditioning

Edward Tolman (Learning)
Known for his work on cognitive maps and mental representations; realized learning is more complex than Skinner believed

Wolfgang Kohler (Learning)
Studies included a Chimp named Sultan who had a banana outside of cage and a stick inside, realized that animal gains insight; and realized that that is the “aha moment”

Albert Bandura (Learning)
Famous bobo doll experiment; monkey see- monkey do; father of observation learning

George A. Miller (Cognition)
Magical 7 plus or minus 2 in STM (Working Memory)

Herman Ebinghaus (Cognition)
Father or memory research, known for the forgetting curve

Elizabeth Loftus (Cognition)
Known for misinformation effect; key in noting the weakness in eye witness testimony

Noam Chomsky (Cognition)
Renowned linguist that noted that children have an innate capacity to learn and produce speech; coined the term language acquisition device

Abraham Maslow (Motivation and Emotion)
Humanist who is known for his hierarchy of needs; believed highest level is “self actualization”

Stanley Schacter (Motivation and Emotion)
Known for the two- factor theory of emotion; where emotion depends of physical arousal and then cognitively labeling that arousal

Hans Selye (Motivation and Emotion)
Studied stress and coined “general adaption syndrome” (alarm reaction; resistance, exhaustion)

Alfred Kinsey (Motivation and Emotion)
Pioneering researcher on human sexuality

Mary Ainsworth (Developmental Psychologists)
Did research on the “strange situation” (relationship between infant and mothers) and came up with the terms secure and insecure attachment

Harry Harlow (Developmental Psychologists)
Famous for experiment on rhesus monkeys and found that touch plays a key role in developing healthy physical growth and normal socialization

Konrad Lorenz (Developmental Psychologists)
Studying animals and is known for his study on imprinting which is defined as learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.

Jean Piaget (Developmental Psychologists)
Focused on cognitive development differs throughout infancy, childhood, and adolescence to understand the world (Small People Can’t Fight)

Lev Vygotsky (Developmental Psychologists)
Famous for his belief that children learn their cultures habits of mind through a process called internalization or inner speech

Diana Baumrind (Developmental Psychologists)
Known for her work on parenting styles (permissive; authoritative; authoritarian)

Erik Erikson (Developmental Psychologists)
Coined the term psychosocial stages of development and was interested in how adolescence go through role confusion to form identity

Lawrence Kohlberg (Developmental Psychologists)
Used hypothetical moral dilemmas to study moral reasoning (Pre conventional- Conventional- Post Conventional

Alfred Adler (Personality)
Best known for critiquing Kohlberg’s theory since all participant were male- argued woman tend to focus on caring and compassion- tend and befriend

Carl Jung (Personality)
Neo- Freudian; who pioneered the use of psychiatry in both social work and early childhood education- urged patients to through words such as self-determination and courage to alter their interpretations of life events

Carl Rogers (Personality)
Neo Freudian who developed the concept of the collective unconscious; believed that the collective unconscious includes shared human experiences that are embodied in myths and cultural archetypes

Paul Costa & Robert McCrea (Personality)
Went against Freud’s pessimistic view of human nature and believed people are innately good and are motivated to achieve their full potential or self actualize

Francis Galton (Testing and Individual Differences)
Came up with the Five Factor Model of Personality (CANOE) Conscientiousness; Agreeableness; Neuroticism, Extroversion, and Openness

Charles Spearman (Testing and Individual Differences)
Proposed that intelligence is a single, underlying factor, which he coined general intelligence of the g factor

Robert Sternberg (Testing and Individual Differences)
Known for the triachic model that distinguishes analytic, practical, and creative intelligences

Howard Gardner (Testing and Individual Differences)
Disagreed with Spearman, and proposed multiple intelligences that include linguistic, logic-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

Alfred Binet (Testing and Individual Differences)
Invented first usable intelligence test that noted the distinction between a child’s mental and chronological ages

Lewis Terman (Testing and Individual Differences)
Best known as the inventor of the Stanford- Binet IQ test; simply divided mental age by chronological age and multiplied by a 100

David Wechsler (Testing and Individual Differences)
Instead of Terman’s approach, Wechsler determined how far a person’s score deviates from a bell shaped normal distribution of scores. Most intelligence tests use this system

Dorothea Dix (Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)
Reformer who documented how poor and deplorable conditions were for the insane poor. Helped persuade state legislatures to create the first generation of American mental hospitals.

Albert Ellis (Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)
Known for rational- emotive therapy where he helped his client’s dispute irrational beliefs and replace them with rational interpretations of events.

Aaron Beck (Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)
Father of cognitive therapy- his theories are used to treat clinical depression

Mary Cover Jones (Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)
Conducted pioneering research in applying behavioral techniques to therapy “known as the mother of behavior therapy”

Joseph Wolpe (Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)
Furthered Jone’s work by inventing systematic desensitization- where he taught his patients to relax deeply and he then created situations that would cause anxiety by working with minor ones and then with more top level anxiety producing situations.

Leon Festinger (Social Psychology)
Best known for his work on cognitive dissonance- realized most people change attitude when their attitudes and actions are inconsistent

Philip Zimbardo (Social Psychology)
Known for the Stanford Prison study- showed the power of role playing

Solomon Asch (Social Psychology)
Known for line experiment that showed the powers of normative social influence

Stanley Milgram (Social Psychology)
Famous for “shock study” that showed that humans tend to be very obedient to authority

AP Psych Exam Review Walenga.

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