1. Nucleic Acids

2. Nucleic Acids Components
Nucleic acid: A biopolymer containing three types of monomer units.
Heterocyclic aromatic amine bases derived from purine and pyrimidine.
The monosaccharides D-ribose or 2-deoxy-D-ribose
Phosphoric acid.

3. Purine/Pyrimidine Bases

4. Nucleosides Definition
Nucleoside: A building block consisting of
D-ribose or 2-deoxy-D-ribose
heterocyclic aromatic amine base
b-N-glycosidic bond .

5. Nucleotides Definition
Nucleotide: Phosphoric acid ester of a nucleoside, most commonly either the 3’ or the 5’ OH.

6. Nucleotides
Example Identify these nucleotides.

7. Acyclovir & AZT Used to treat HIV
It is used to treat or prevent infections
caused by certain kinds of viruses.
Examples of these infections include herpes and shingles

8. DNA - 1° Structure Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
A backbone of alternating units of 2-deoxy-D-ribose and phosphate in which the 3’-OH of one 2-deoxy-D-ribose is joined by a phosphodiester bond to the 5’-OH of another 2-deoxy-D-ribose.
Primary Structure: The sequence of bases along the pentose-phosphodiester backbone of a DNA molecule (or an RNA molecule).
Read from the 5’ end to the 3’ end.

9. DNA - 1° Structure
A structural formula for TG phosphorylated at the 5’ end.
Thymine, T
Guanine, G 3
diester

10. DNA - 2° Structure
Secondary structure: The ordered arrangement of nucleic acid strands.
The double helix model of DNA 2° structure was proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.
Double helix: A type of 2° structure of DNA molecules in which two antiparallel polynucleotide strands are coiled in a right-handed manner about the same axis.

11. DNA - 2° Structure Hydrogen bonding occurs between bases A---T G---C
Evidence: Base composition in mole-percent of DNA for several organisms.

12. Base Pairing
Base-pairing between adenine and thymine (A-T) and guanine and cytosine (G-C).

13. Double Helix
Ribbon model of double-stranded B-DNA.

14. Forms of DNA B-DNA A-DNA Z-DNA
the predominant form in dilute aqueous solution.
a right-handed helix.
2000 pm thick with 3400 pm per ten base pairs.
minor groove of 1200pm and major groove of 2200 pm.
A-DNA
a right-handed helix, but thicker than B-DNA.
2900 pm per 10 base pairs.
Z-DNA
a left-handed double helix.

15. Double Helix
An idealized model of B-DNA.

16. DNA - 3° Structure
Tertiary structure: The three-dimensional arrangement of all atoms of a double-stranded DNA, commonly referred as supercoiling.
Circular DNA: A type of double-stranded DNA in which the 5’ and 3’ ends of each stand are joined by phosphodiester bonds.
Histone: A protein, particularly rich in the basic amino acids lysine and arginine, that is found associated with DNA molecules.

17. DNA - 3° Structure
Figure Relaxed and supercoiled DNA.

18. DNA - 3° Structure
Chromatin: Consists of DNA molecules wound around particles of histones (a simple protein containing mainly basic amino acids;) in a beadlike structure.
Further coiling produces the dense chromatin found in nuclei of plant and animal cells.

19. Ribonucleic Acids (RNA)
long, unbranched chains of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester groups between the 3’-OH of one pentose and the 5’-OH of the next;
Consists of A, U ( Uracil), G, C.
the pentose unit in RNA is -D-ribose rather than -2-deoxy-D-ribose.
the pyrimidine bases in RNA are uracil and cytosine rather than thymine and cytosine.
RNA is single stranded rather than double stranded.
(RNA)
A –Uracil
C –Cytosine

20. rRNA Different types of RNA:
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): A ribonucleic acid found in ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis.

21. tRNA
Transfer RNA (tRNA): A ribonucleic acid that carries a specific amino acid to the site of protein synthesis on ribosomes.

22. mRNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA): A ribonucleic acid that carries coded genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for the synthesis of proteins.
Present in cells in relatively small amounts and very short-lived.
Single stranded.
mRNA synthesis is directed by information encoded on DNA.
A complementary strand of mRNA is synthesized along one strand of an unwound DNA, starting from the 3’ end.

23. mRNA from DNA, transcription
DNA (RNA)
A – T(U)
G – C(C)

24. The Genetic Code
second
first
third

25. The Genetic Code Properties of the Code
Only 61 triplets code for amino acids; the remaining 3 (UAA, UAG, and UGA) signal chain termination.
The code is degenerate, which means that several amino acids are coded for by more than one triplet. Leu, Ser, and Arg, for example, are each coded for by six triplets.
Degenerate triplets differ only in the third letter of the codon that varies. Gly, for example, is coded for by GGA, GGG, GGC, and GGU. (GG? Codes for GLY)
There is no ambiguity in the code; each triplet codes for one and only one amino acid.

26. Sequencing DNA
Restriction endonuclease: An enzyme that catalyzes hydrolysis of a particular phosphodiester bond within a DNA strand.
Over 1000 endonucleases have been isolated and their specificities determined.
Typically they recognize a set sequence of nucleotides and cleave the DNA at or near that particular sequence.
EcoRI (eco R 1) from E. coli, for example, cleaves as shown.
Recognition pattern

27. Sequencing DNA
Following are several more examples of endonucleases and their specificities.

28. Sequencing DNA
Maxam-Gilbert method: A method developed by Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert; depends on base-specific chemical cleavage.
Dideoxy chain termination method: Developed by Frederick Sanger.
Gilbert and Sanger shared the 1980 Nobel Prize for biochemistry for their “development of chemical and biochemical analysis of DNA structure.”

29. Replication in Vitro
the sequence of nucleotides in one strand (ssDNA) is copied as a complementary strand to form the second strand of a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA).
Synthesis is catalyzed by DNA polymerase.
DNA polymerase requires
the four deoxynucleotide triphosphate (dNTP) monomers
a primer is present to start the process.

30. Dideoxy Chain Termination
Chain termination method is accomplished by the addition to the synthesizing medium of a 2’,3’-dideoxynucleotide triphosphate (ddNTP).
Because a ddNTP has no 3’-OH, chain synthesis is terminated when a ddNTP becomes incorporated.
Without a OH here chain cannot extend.

31. Methodology of Dideoxy Chain Termination
In this method, the following are mixed:
Single-stranded DNA of unknown sequence and primer; then divided into four reaction mixtures.
To each of the four reaction mixture is then added:
The four dNTP, one of which is labeled in the 5’ end with phosphorus-32 which is radioactive.
DNA polymerase.
one of the four ddNTPs.

32. Dideoxy Chain Termination
After gel electrophoresis of each reaction mixture
a piece of film is placed over the gel.
Gamma rays released by P-32 darken the film and create a pattern of the resolved oligonucleotide.
The base sequence of the complement to the original strand is read directly from bottom to top of the developed film.

33. Dideoxy Chain Termination
The primer-DNA template is divided into four separate reaction mixtures. To each is added the four dNTPs, DNA polymerase, primer and one of the four ddNTPs in small amounts. Synthesis will produce chains of varying lengths.
DNA
A – T
G – C

34. Dideoxy Chain Termination
The mixtures are separated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.
From the four different ddNTP reaction mixtures.
Move from 5’ to 3’ end.