1. Evolution of Hominins The Early Hominins: Bipedal Primates
Tribe Hominini: the bipedal primates (the hominins)
Genus Australopithecus: small-brained, gracile (slender) hominins with a mixed vegetable/fruit diet
Genus Paranthropus: small-brained, robust hominins with a grassland vegetable diet
Genus Homo: large-brained, omnivorous hominins

2. Fossil record
Ardipithecus ramidus Ethiopia mya Australopithecus afarensis Hadar mya
Paranthropus robustus Oldivai Gorge mya
Paranthropus boisei East Turkana mya

3. Fossil record Australopithecus africanus Sterkfontein - 2.5 mya
Homo habilis Koobi Fora mya
Homo erectus Zhoukoudian -350,000 ya
Homo neanderthalensis Wadi Amud -40,000 ya
Homo sapiens Dunstable - 3,500 ya

4. The Analysis of Ardipithecus ramidus -- One of the Earliest Known Hominids

6. Fig. 6-2, p. 130

7. Fig. 6-7, p. 136

8. Fig. 6-10, p. 138

9. Evolution of the Hominins
Bipedalism
What’s the benefit of standing upright? When we stand and walk, with our trunk erect and knees straight, we have to balance our bodies vertically on two relatively small points of contact with the ground.
We can’t run particularly fast, and we aren’t very stable on rough or slippery surfaces.

10. Evolution of the Hominins
Explaining the Evolution of Bipedalism
Carrying Model
Freeing the arms and hands from a role in locomotion would have meant that our ancestors could transport food from open areas to safer locations.
Vigilance Model
By elevating the head, bipedalism helped our ancestors locate potential sources of food and danger.

11. p. 135

12. Fig. 6-3, p. 130

13. Evolution of the Hominins
More Australopithecines
Although little changed from Australopithecus afarensis, the fossils representing the next period are still called by their original name, A. africanus.
The remains of this species have been found mostly in South Africa.
They have the same body size and shape and the same brain size as A. afarensis.
There are a few differences: their faces are a bit less prognathous and they lack a sagittal crest.

14. Evolution of the Hominins
Still More Hominins
Between 3 and 2 mya, two new types of hominins appear in the fossil record, Paranthropus and our genus Homo.
Paranthropus retains the chimpanzee-sized brains and small bodies of Australopithecus but has evolved a notable robusticity in the areas of the skull involved with chewing.
The second new hominin genus that appeared about 2.5 mya is the one to which modern humans belong, Homo.

15. Evolution of the Hominins
Putting It All Together
Increased environmental variability resulting in a series of newly emerging, complex, and diverse habitats may have initially promoted different adaptations among hominin populations.
Unable to survive well enough to perpetuate themselves in the face of decreasing resources these now-extinct hominins were possibly outcompeted for space and resources by the better adapted.
In this case, the adaptive response that included the ability for endurance running and an increase in brain size proved successful in the long run.

16. Ardipithecus ramidus
An Ethiopian member of a research team led by paleoanthropologist Tim White discovered the earliest known australopith species in Ethiopia in These recognizably human fossils were estimated to be about 4.4 million years old. White and his colleagues gave their discovery the name Ardipithecus ramidus. Ramid means "root" in the Afar language of Ethiopia, and refers to the closeness of this new species to the roots of humanity. At the time of this discovery, the genus Australopithecus was scientifically well established. White devised the genus name Ardipithecus to distinguish this new species from other australopiths because it had a very ancient combination of apelike and humanlike traits.

18. Australopithecus anamensis
In 1965 a research team form Harvard University discovered a single arm bone of an early human at the site of Kanapoi in northern Kenya. The researchers estimated this bone to be 4 million years old, but could not identify the species to which it belonged. It was not until 1994 that a research team, led by paleoanthropologist Meave Leakey, found numerous teeth and fragments of bone at the site that could be linked to the previously discovered fossil. Leakey and her colleagues determined that the fossils were those of a very primitive species of australopith, which was given the name Australopithecus anamensis. Researchers have since found other A. anamensis fossils at nearby sites, dating between about 4.2 million and 3.9 million years old. The skull of this species appears apelike, while its enlarged tibia or lower leg bone, indicates that it supported its full body weight on one leg at a time, as in regular bipedal walking

19. Australopithecus afarensis
Australopithecus anamensis was quite similar to another, much better-known species, A. afarensis, a gracile australopith that thrived in eastern Africa between about 3.9 million and 3 million years ago. The most celebrated fossil of this species, known as Lucy, is a partial skeleton of a female discovered by paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson in 1974 at Hadar, Ethiopia. Lucy lived 3.2 million years ago. Several hundred fossils of this species have been described from Hadar, including a collection representing at least 13 individuals of both sexes and various ages, all from a single site that is dated 3.2 million years old.
Researchers working in northern Tanzania have also found fossilized bones of A. afarensis at Laetoli, a 3.6 million year old site best known for spectacular trails of bipedal human footprints (and the prints of other animals) preserved in a hardened volcanic ash. These footprints were discovered in 1978 by a research team led by paleoanthropologist Mary Leakey. They provide irrefutable evidence that australopiths regularly walked bipedally.

20. LUCY
The controversy about how the australopiths moved has mainly focused on Lucy's species A. afarensis. While Lucy certainly walked upright, she stood only 3.5 feet tall and had longer, more powerful arms than most later human species, which suggests that she was also adept at climbing trees. And while the Laetoli footprints were made by bipedal humans, some scientists have argued that the imprints of the heel, arch, and toes are not exactly like those made by modern human feet. In addition, other fossils from Hadar and Laetoli come from individuals much larger than Lucy, up to 5 feet tall. This has caused controversy over whether the entire set of fossils represents one or two species, although most scientists accept the single-species idea since large and small adults, probably male and female, occurred together at the same site at Hadar.

21. Australopithecus africanus
Australopithecus africanus thrived in what is now the Transvaal region of South Africa between about 3.5 million and 2.5 million years ago. The anatomist Raymond Dart described this species -- the first known australopith -- on the basis of a fossil discovered in 1924 at Taung, South Africa. For two decades after this discovery, almost no one in the scientific community believed Dart's claim that the skull came from an ancestral human. In the late 1930s and 1940s, teams led by paleontologist Robert Broom unearthed many more australopith skulls and other bones from the Transvaal sites of Sterkfontein and Swartkrans.

22. Australopithecus Afarensis

23. lucy

24. Paranthropus Paranthropus aethiopicus
The earliest known robust species, Paranthropus aethiopicus, had evolved in eastern Africa by 2.7 million years ago. In 1985 at West Turkana, Kenya, paleoanthropologist Alan Walker discovered the fossil skull that defined this species.
Paranthropus boisei
Paranthropus boisei, the other well-known East African robust australopith, lived over a large geographic range between about 2.3 million and 1.2 million years ago. In 1959 Mary Leakey discovered the first fossil of this species -- a nearly complete skull at the site of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. Paleoanthropologist Louis Leakey, husband of Mary, named the new species Zinjanthropus boisei (Zinjanthropus translates as "East African man"). This skull, which is dated to 1.8 million years ago, has the most specialized features of all the robust species. It has a massive, wide, and dished-in face that was capable of withstanding extreme chewing forces, and its molars are four times the size of those in modern humans. Since the discovery of Zinjanthropus, now recognized as an australopith, scientists have found great numbers of P. boisei fossils in Tanzania, Kenya, and Ethiopia.
Paranthropus robustus
The southern robust species, which has the descriptive name Paranthropus robustus, lived between about 1.8 million and 1.3 million years ago in the Transvaal, the same region that was home to A. africanus

25. Fig. 6-5, p. 133

26. p. 131

27. Evolution of the Hominins
Summary
About 23 mya, the hominoids appear in the form of primitive apes.
This successful group has left fossils all over Africa, Europe, and Asia.
It is from one of the African apes that our tribe, Hominini, branched off 6 to 5 mya.

28. Fig. 6-12, p. 141