1. BASIC CONCEPTS

8.  Summary-1  The net nuclear charge in a nuclear species is equal to + Ze, where Z is the atomic number and e is the magnitude of the electronic charge.  The fundamental positively charged particle in the nucleus is the proton  The mass number of a nuclear species, indicated by the symbol A, is the integer nearest to the ratio between the nuclear mass and the fundamental mass unit, defined so that the proton has a mass of nearly one unit.  the mass of the electrons is negligible compared with the proton mass m P ~ 2000m e  For nearly all nuclei, A is greater than Z, in most cases by a factor of two or more. Thus there must be other massive components in the nucleus.  The presence of electrons within the nucleus could not be proven due to following reasons: i)If electrons existed inside the nucleus, then it should be bound inside with a force stronger than coulomb force. ii)If electrons existed inside the nucleus, due to uncertainty principle electrons should have an energy of 20 MeV but the electrons emitted during  -decay have energies less than 1 MeV. iii)the proton and electron each have angular momentum (spin) of (1/2). Quantum mechanically spin of the protons and electrons do not add together to give observed spin of nuclei. three spins of 1/2 in deuterium combine to a total spin of either 3/2 or ½. Yet the observed spin of the deuterium nucleus is 1. iv)Nuclei containing unpaired electrons would be expected to have magnetic dipole moments far greater than those observed. observed magnetic moment of the deuterium nucleus IS about 1/2000 of the electron's magnetic moment.

11.  Summary-2  Neutron is proposed as building block of nucleus.  The neutron is eclectically neutral and has a mass about equal to the proton mass (actually about 0.1% larger).  Thus a nucleus with Z protons and A - Z neutrons has the proper total mass and charge  we define a specific nuclear species, or nuclide, by symbol where X is the chemical symbol and N is the neutron number, A - Z.  Neutrons and protons are the two members of the family of nucleons.  Nuclides with the same proton number but different neutron numbers are called isotopes; for example 35 Cl and 37 Cl.  Nuclides with the same N but different z· these are called isotones.  Nuclides with the same mass number A are known as isobars.  Nuclear properties are mass, radius, relative abundance (for stable nuclides), decay modes and half-lives (for radioactive nuclides), reaction modes and cross sections, spin, magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments, and excited states.  In nuclear physics lengths are of the order of 10 -15 m, which is one femtometer (fm), also called one fermi. Nuclear sizes range from about 1 fm for a single nucleon to about 7 fm for the heaviest nuclei.  The time scale of nuclear phenomena has an enormous range from 10 -20 s to 10 -9 s ( 5 He or 8 Be, break apart in times of the order of 10 -20 s),  decays of nuclei occur within lifetimes of the order of 10 -9 s to 10 -12 s, but many  and  decays occur with much shorter or longer lifetimes ( from minutes or hours to sometimes thousands or even millions of years).  Nuclear energies are measured in (MeV), where 1 eV = 1.602 X 10 -19 J. Typical  and  decay energies are in the range of 1 MeV, and low-energy nuclear reactions take place with kinetic energies of order 10 MeV.  Nuclear masses are measured in terms of the unified atomic mass unit, u, defined such that the mass of an atom of 12 C is exactly 12 u and 1u = 931.502 MeV,