1. http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/ mccarty_and_peters/coral/C-intro.htm Coral Reefs http://tools.coralreef.org/content/ objects/view.acs?object_id=545

2. Importance of Coral Reefs 0.2% of world’s oceans Habitat for 1/3 of marine fishes Habitat for tens of thousands of other animals The rainforests of the oceans

3. Importance of Coral Reefs PROTECTION TO COASTLINES ECONOMIC RESOURCES BIODIVERSITY NATURAL BEAUTY

4. Importance of Coral Reefs PROTECTION TO COASTLINES –absorb energy of ocean waves –reduce erosion of shoreline –storm damage –flooding

5. Importance of Coral Reefs ECONOMIC RESOURCES –Fisheries for food –Fisheries for jobs –Tourism –Building materials –Aquarium trade

6. Importance of Coral Reefs BIODIVERSITY –The rainforests of the sea –Genetic diversity –Pharmaceuticals

7. Importance of Coral Reefs NATURAL BEAUTY http://sustainableseas.noaa.gov/missions/ florida2/background/coralspawning.html

8. $375 billion in environmental goods and services Reefs at Risk 1998 (http://www.wri.org/powerpoints/reefswww/sld011.htm

9. Caribbean reef values (annual net benefits in 2000) Fisheries: $310 million Dive tourism: $2.1 billion Shoreline protection: $0.7-2.2 billion Total: $4.1-4.6 billion

10. REEFS WORLDWIDE ARE THREATENED 11% of reefs have been lost 16% of reefs severely damaged ~60% of studied reefs threatened by human activities No pristine reefs left

11. CARIBBEAN REEFS DECLINING 1970s: ~50% coral cover Present: ~10% coral cover =80% reduction in coral cover over last 30 years Gardner et al. 2003 Science 301: 958-960

12. Threats to coral and coral reefs: 1) Natural 2) Anthropogenic –of human origin

13. Natural disturbances that affect corals and coral reefs? Hurricanes Tsunamis Volcanoes Earthquakes Predators & competitors Bleaching Pathogens

14. Hurricanes Physical damage http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/ 1989hugo.html Destruction of other ecosystems upon which coral reefs depend Freshwater poisoning Smothering

15. Tsunamis Physical damage Possible disruption of reproduction and recruitment Erosion

16. Volcanoes Depends upon where volcano occurs http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/ current_volcs/montserrat/montserrat.html smothering and sedimentation Heat

17. Earthquakes Little direct impact -coastal landslides Indirect impacts -triggers tsunamis

18. Predators crown of thorns starfish snails parrotfish butterflyfish http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/reflib/ cot-starfish/pages/cot-q07.html http://www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov/pgallery/pgflower/living/fg_living.html

19. Competitors algae http://catbert.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/algae.html

20. Loss of zooxanthellae causes – higher than usual ocean temperature – sharp changes in salinity –heavy UV light exposure http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/ mccarty_and_peters/coral/Bleach.htm

21. http://orbit-net.nesdis.noaa.gov/orad/coral_bleaching_index.html

22. Pathogens Diseases on the rise –new pathogens (8+) –land pathogens (Aspergillus) –occurring at all depths –More susceptible when stressed http://ourworld.compuserve.com/ homepages/mccarty_and_peters/ coral/Bbd.htm

23. Threats to coral and coral reefs: 1) Natural 2) Anthropogenic –of human origin

24. Anthropogenic threats to coral reefs: Overfishing Development Mining and dredging Recreation

25. Overfishing Ecological imbalance http://tools.coralreef.org/content/objects/view.acs?object_id=545 http://www.photolib.noaa. gov/reef/reef2570.htm

26. Overfishing Ecological imbalance http://catbert.er.usgs.gov/african_dust/events.html

27. http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/ students/coral/coral5.htm http://www.wri.org/indictrs/rrcyanid.htm Overfishing Destructive fishing practices

28. Development Sediment  smothering Freshwater input Pollutants & nutrients (sewage, pesticides, fertilizer, heavy metals, pathogens)

29. http://www.wcmc.org.uk/marine /data/coral_mangrove/coral.dan ger.html http://ourworld.compuserve.com/hom epages/mccarty_and_peters/coral/c- intro.htm Development

30. http://www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov/scied/science/habitat/influences.html

31. Mining for construction materials and dredging Destruction of reef structure stirs up sediment

32. Recreation Anchors, boats, flippers, hands, feet Kill animal tissue Skeleton breakage http://www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov/scied /science/habitat/influences.html

33. interaction of natural changes & human activity multiple insults Synergistic effects

34. Global climate change Reduced reef building Increase in frequency and intensity of hurricanes Increases in bleaching Increased in disease

35. CORAL DOMINATED ALGAL DOMINATED Synergistic effects

36. OVERFISHING HURRICANE ALLEN 1980 ACROPORA DIE-OFF 1980S DIADEMA DIE-OFF 1983 JAMAICA

37. MORE ALGAE NO GRAZERS LESS CORAL PHYSICAL DAMAGE ALGAL DOMINATED SYNERGISTIC EFFECTS JAMAICA

38. PROTECTION SINCE 1961 ACROPORA DIE-OFF 1980S DIADEMA DIE-OFF 1983 HURRICANE HUGO 1989 HURRICANES MARILYN/LUIS 1995 BUCK ISLAND, ST. CROIX

39. PROTECTION LITTLE OVERFISHING DISEASE PHYSICAL DAMAGE CORAL DOMINATED BUCK ISLAND, ST. CROIX