1. Protists and Fungi
2 Diverse Kingdoms of Life

2. Code Orange!! Study lab before you arrive!
LAB WARNING!!
Code Orange!! Study lab before you arrive!
This is an official
BIOL 1030 Boyd-alert!!

3. Domain Eukarya Eukaryotes (review BIOL 1020 notes)
Differ from other domains by:
1) multicellularity: body formed of cells which are in contact and coordinate activities
Note some eukaryotes are unicellular or colonial (aggregation of cells with little coordination of activities)
2) sexual reproduction: absent from all bacteria known
Note some eukaryote groups rarely or never reproduce sexually (only asexual reproduction has been observed)
But, evolution of eukaryotes involved endosymbiosis, incorporation of Eubacteria cells into eukaryotes as mitochondria and chloroplasts.

4. Domain Eukarya
The mitochondria of all eukaryotes, and the chloroplasts of photosynthetic ones, evolved from Eubacteria.

5. Domain Eukarya
The mitochondria of all eukaryotes, and the chloroplasts of photosynthetic ones, evolved from Eubacteria.

6. Domain Eukarya Kingdom Protista (protists)
Most diverse kingdom in Eukarya
Unicellular (single cells)
Colonial (loose confederations of cells which generally do not coordinate activities or specialize to perform particular functions)
Multicellular (many cells that do coordinate activities and often become specialized to divide up life functions)

7. Domain Eukarya Kingdom Protista (protists)
Artificial group: not based on phylogeny
Placed together for convenience and because they are NOT fungi, animals, or plants
Polyphyletic group
Note that classifications
vary: text and lab use
different systems!
Fig. 35.4

8. Kingdom Protista (protists)
We will cover them by grouping similar phyla together into 5 general groups:
Heterotrophs with no permanent locomotor apparatus
Photosynthetic ones
Heterotrophs with flagella
Non-motile spore-formers
Heterotrophs with restricted
mobility.
Fig. 35.6

9. 1) Heterotrophs with no permanent locomotor apparatus
Mostly unicellular and ameoba-like:
Phylum Rhizopoda (amoebas)
Phylum Actinopoda (radiolarians)
Phylum Foraminifera (forams).

10. Phylum Rhizopoda (amoebas)
Move by pseudopods (flowing extensions of cytoplasm)
Lack sexual reproduction, cell walls, flagella
Reproduce asexually only
Amoeba movie

11. Phylum Rhizopoda (amoebas)
Many are predators (use pseudopods to engulf other cells).
Exception: Vampyrella, the “sucking amoeba”
Sucks contents of algal cell in matter of seconds.
Vampyrella
green
alga
cell

12. Phylum Rhizopoda (amoebas)
Hundreds of species: freshwater, marine, soil
Some are parasites (feed on host tissues or cells but usually don’t kill host).

13. Phylum Rhizopoda (amoebas)
Example: Entamoeba histolytica (cause of amoebic dysentery)
Up to 10 million Americans may be infected by parasitic amoebas.

14. Phylum Actinopoda (radiolarians)
Have shells (external skeletons) made of silica (glass)
Pseudopods needle-like
Marine group. Part of plankton (microscopic floating marine organisms)
Valuable fossils for geological record.
Pseudopods
Beautiful radiolarian
shell
Fig. 35.8

15. Phylum Foraminifera (forams)
Marine, make skeleton (called test) of organic material plus sand, calcium carbonate
Some float in plankton, most live attached to bottom or other organisms
Podia (thin cytoplasmic projections) used for swimming, feeding.
Fig. 35.9

16. Phylum Foraminifera (forams)
Life cycle: sporic meiosis (haploid and diploid generations formed)
Important fossil group (200 million years of geological record
Limestones often rich in forams (ex, Dover, England).
Fig

17. 2) Photosynthetic protists
Phylum Phyrrhophyta (dinoflagellates)
Phylum Euglenophyta (euglenoids)
Phylum Chrysophyta (diatoms and golden algae)
Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae)
Phylum Phaeophyta (brown algae)
Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)

18. Phylum Phyrrhophyta (dinoflagellates)
Unicellular, mostly marine: 2100 species
Usually 2 flagella, skeleton of plates of cellulose
Reproduce mostly by asexual reproduction (sex rare)
Chlorophylls a + c

19. Phylum Phyrrhophyta (dinoflagellates)
Important/interesting roles:
zooxanthellae: symbionts (live in mutually beneficial relationship) in other organisms (jellyfish, sea anemones, mollusks, corals)
Zooxanthellae in corals (up to 30,000 cells per cubic mm or coral tissue) do photosynthesis and carbon products absorbed by corals, helping to make coral reefs one of most productive habitats on Earth!.

20. Phylum Phyrrhophyta (dinoflagellates)
Important/interesting roles:
bioluminescent: emit light when disturbed
creates sparkling waves and wakes of ships at night
why do this? Perhaps to attract predatory fish to eat the predators of the dinoflagellates!
Magnified view of plates on
outside of cell
A cruising dinoflagellate....

21. Phylum Phyrrhophyta (dinoflagellates)
Important/interesting roles:
red tides: population explosions (“blooms”) that can color the water with pigmented dinoflagellate cells
toxins in cells can kill marine life
Example, Pfiesteria piscicida: stuns fish with toxin and feeds on body fluids.

22. Phylum Euglenophyta (euglenoids)
Mostly freshwater, unicellular species
Some photosynthetic (chlorophylls a + b), some not
Protein coat called pellicle on outside of cell
Important members of food freshwater food chains
Example, Euglena.
Fig

23. Phylum Chrysophyta (diatoms and golden algae)
Here we emphasize the diatoms: 11,500 species
Use chlorophyll a + c, lack flagella
Make chrysolaminarin: unique energy storage chemical
Cell wall of silica
(glass), with intricate
designs. Like petri
plate, with top and
bottom halves.
Fig

24. Phylum Chrysophyta
Asexual reproduction common, but do gametic meiosis.
Importance:
1) “grass of the sea.” Abundant members of plankton. Do large % of ocean photosynthesis
2) fossil deposits of cell walls called “diatomaceous earth.” Mined and used for pest control (applied to insects, gets in appendages and grinds them to death), reflective paints, filters.

25. Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae)
Mostly marine (many tropical), multicellular species.
Lack flagella
Have only chlorophyll a: similar to photosynthetic bacteria called cyanobacteria
Reproduction: mostly sporic meiosis (make gametophyte and sporophyte generations).

26. Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae)
Importance:
Coral reefs: part of reef made of coralline red algae, which have calcium carbonate forming part of cell walls.
A coralline
red alga

27. Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae)
Importance:
Agar and carrageenan (cell wall chemicals) are extracted from some red algae
Used as emulsifiers and thickeners (chocolate milk, ice cream, cosmetics, jellies, microbiology medium, etc.)
Red alga used for
carrageenan extraction

28. Phylum Phaeophyta (brown algae)
Marine (cold water), multicellular: 1500 species
Chlorophylls a + c
Reproduction often sexual: sporic meiosis (sporophyte and gametophyte generations)

29. Phylum Phaeophyta (brown algae)
Large species called kelps
Form “kelp forests”: important shallow water habitats.
Sea otters depend
on kelp forests

30. Phylum Phaeophyta (brown algae)
Kelps also harvested for cell wall materials called alginates: used as thickeners in foods and other products.

31. Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)
Mostly aquatic (some on most terrestrial surfaces), marine and freshwater: 7000 species
Unicellular to multicellular
Chlorophylls a + b

32. Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)
Unicellular motile example: Chlamydomonas
To be seen in lab: note zygotic meiosis and asexual reproduction in haploid phase.

33. Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)
Motile (swimming) colonial example: Volvox
To be seen in lab: note daughter colonies (made asexually inside main sphere).

34. Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)
Parenchymatous (3-D body) form: Ulva (sea lettuce)
To be seen in lab: note life cycle is sporic meiosis where gametophyte and sporophyte look identical (isomorphic alternation of generations)!

35. Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)
Importance:
producers in aquatic ecosystems (base of food chains)
human/animal nutritional supplement? Chlorella in the news....
The miracle of chlorella growth factor!

36. Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)
Evolutionary Importance
Land plants (Kingdom Plantae) evolved from a line of green algae.
Fig

37. 3) Heterotrophs with flagella
Phylum Sarcomastigophora (zoomastigotes)
Phylum Ciliophora (ciliates)

38. Phylum Sarcomastigophora (zoomastigotes)
Mostly unicellular, often with flagella
Here we emphasize Class Zoomastigophora, especially a group called the trypanosomes
Most reproduction is asexual.

39. Phylum Sarcomastigophora (zoomastigotes)
Some trypanosomes are parasites that cause serious human diseases:
African sleeping sickness: Caused by Trypanosoma
Carried to new host by biting fly (tsetse fly)
Affects cattle and prevents livestock culture in large area of Africa.
Fig

40. Phylum Sarcomastigophora (zoomastigotes)
Some trypanosomes are parasites that cause serious human diseases:
Leishmaniasis (caused by Leishmania)
Carried to new host by biting fly (sand fly) in tropical areas
Causes sores and erosion of skin (4 million people/yr).
Lesion on ear

41. Phylum Sarcomastigophora (zoomastigotes)
Some trypanosomes are parasites that cause serious human diseases:
Giardiasis caused by Giardia lamblia
Infects humans and some other animals (dogs). Found across U.S.
Causes nausea, cramps, diarrhea.
Fig
Lesion on ear
Giardia cells in intestine

42. Phylum Sarcomastigophora (zoomastigotes)
Some trypanosomes are gut symbionts:
Trichonympha in guts of termites (Order of insects)
Digest cellulose in wood for insect, receive home in gut.
Trichonympha
cells
Worker termites

43. Phylum Ciliophora (ciliates)
Unicellular (but some big and internally complex)
8000 species
Most with many cilia
Also have 2 types of nuclei: macronucleus (large) and micronucleus (small)
Outer covering (called pellicle) of tough protein material
Fig

44. Phylum Ciliophora (ciliates)
Do sexual reproduction by conjugation (exchange of micronuclei).

45. Phylum Ciliophora (ciliates)
Examples, Paramecium and Stentor
Cilia used for locomotion and for feeding.
Stentor in motion
Paramecium
Stentor

46. 4) Nonmotile spore-formers
Phylum Apicomplexa (sporozoans)

47. Phylum Apicomplexa (sporozoans)
Unicellular, do not make cilia/flagella: 3900 species
All are parasites of animals
Spores are infective bodies used to reach new hosts
Cell structure unique: on end (apex) of cell has concentration of organelles.

48. Phylum Apicomplexa (sporozoans)
Example, Plasmodium
Cause of malaria
Complex life cycle: uses mosquito and human as host
One of most serious diseases worldwide: 500 million cases/yr (2 million deaths).
Fig

49. Attacked by mosquito control (often insecticides) and antimalarial drugs
Problem: both mosquitoes and Plasmodium evolve resistance to control chemicals
Maybe develop vaccine?.
Malaria risk map

50. 5) Heterotrophs with restricted mobility
Phylum Oomycota (oomycetes)
Phylum Acrasiomycota (cellular slime molds)
Phylum Myxomycota (plasmodial slime molds)

51. Phylum Oomycota (oomycetes)
All are parasites or saprobes (feed on dead organic matter). About 600 species
Cell walls present (cellulose)
Gametic life cycles (like us!)
Make asexual spores by mitosis: called mitospores. As with all spores, one can form new organism without joining with another cell. If swimming mitospore, called a zoospore.
May form threadlike cells
One called hypha (pl. hyphae).

52. Phylum Oomycota (oomycetes)
Importance: some cause diseases of plants or fish
Example, late blight of potato (Phytophthora).

53. Irish Potato Famine Irish peasants depended on potatoes as staple food
, late blight of potato struck
Destroyed crops
1 million Irish starved to death, 1 million emigrated (many to U.S.).
How many of the Fighting
Irish got here.

54. Phylum Acrasiomycota (cellular slime molds)
Weird group: 70 species.
Amoeboid cells
Join together for form mass called “slug”
Makes spores.

55. Phylum Myxomycota (plasmodial slime molds)
Another weird group (700 species). Plasmodium is multinucleate mass of cytoplasm
Flows around in moist areas, ingesting unicells and organic matter
Example, Physarum.
Fig

56. Phylum Myxomycota (plasmodial slime molds)
Later form meiospores with cellulose walls
Note a spore-containing structure often called a “sporangium” (“angios” from Greek for “vessel”)
Plural is sporangia.
Fig

57. Kingdom Fungi Unlike Protista, are monophyletic group
Large: about 77,000 named species
Many more remain to be discovered.

58. General fungal traits
Terrestrial heterotrophs (digestion is external: enzymes secreted and food absorbed from solution)
Cell walls of chitin
Unique type of mitosis (nuclear mitosis: where nucleus divides within nuclear membrane)
Do not make swimming cells (lack cilia and flagella)
Reproduce by spores
sexual spores are meiospores (formed by meiosis)
asexual spores are mitospores (formed by mitosis).

59. General fungal traits Most cells are threadlike and tubular (hyphae)
Mass of hyphae called mycelium.
Fig. 36.4

60. General fungal traits Some hyphae lack crosswalls (coenocytic hyphae)
Some hyphae have crosswalls (septate hyphae)

61. General fungal traits Sexual reproduction: zygotic meiosis
Haploid phase predominates
BUT, syngamy fertilization has 2 steps
Plasmogamy: union of gamete cells
Karyogamy: union of gamete nuclei
Some fungi do plasmogamy but delay karyogamy, forming cells that have separate haploid nuclei. These hyphae called dikaryotic.

62. Example of fungal life cycle with dikaryotic hyphae: mushroom
Dikaryotic mycelium is major phase
Only when mushroom is formed does karyogamy occur, followed by meiosis.
General fungal traits
Karyogamy

63. Fungal Phyla 3 phyla but 4 groups
Phyla separated mainly by how meiospores are formed (how sexual reproduction done)
Phylum Zygomycota (zygomycetes or bread molds): Meiospores made by zygosporangium (resistant microscopic structure).

64. Fungal Phyla 3 phyla but 4 groups
Phyla separated mainly by how meiospores are formed (how sexual reproduction done)
Phylum Ascomycota (ascomycetes or sac fungi): Meiospores made in sac-like ascus. Asci (plural) containing in fruiting body called ascoma (plural ascomata).

65. Fungal Phyla 3 phyla but 4 groups
Phyla separated mainly by how meiospores are formed (how sexual reproduction done)
Phylum Basidiomycota (basidiomycetes or club fungi): Meiospores made on club-like basidium. Basidia (plural) contained in fruiting body called basidioma (plural basidiomata).

66. Fungal Phyla 3 phyla but 4 groups
4th group? Fungi that don’t make meiospores (to our knowledge)
Reproduce only asexually (by mitospores)
Called Imperfect Fungi
Not a true phylum but a temporary holding group.