1. Influence, Empowerment, and Politics
In Chapter 15 you will learn how influence tactics, empowerment, and politics are used as means of dealing with the constant struggle between individual and collective interests that are at the very heart of interpersonal dealings in the workplace.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Copyright © 2010 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Ch. 15 Learning Objectives
Explain the concept of mutuality of interest
Name at least three “soft” and two “hard” influence tactics, and summarize the practical lessons from influence research.
Identify and briefly describe French and Raven’s five bases of power, and discuss the responsible use of power.
Define the term empowerment, and explain why it is a matter of degree.
The chapter begins with a discussion of mutuality of interest followed by an examination of organizational influence tactics covered in Objectives 2 and 3. Empowerment is the next topic of discussion as addressed in Objectives 4 & 5.
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3. Ch. 15 Learning Objectives
Explain why delegation is the highest form of empowerment, and discuss the connections among delegation, trust, and personal initiative.
Define organizational politics and explain what triggers it.
Distinguish between favorable and unfavorable impression management tactics.
Explain how to manage organizational politics.
The final three objectives explore various aspects of organizational politics and impression management.
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4. The Tug-of-War between Self-Interest and Mutuality of Interest
Climate of Openness, Cooperation, and Trust
Climate of Destructive Competition and Suspicion
Influence tactics
Organizational contributors
Individuals
Groups
Empowerment
Mutuality of Interest (organizational effectiveness)
Motivation
Team building
Communication
Leadership
Self- Interest
Political
tactics
Mutuality of interest is balancing individual and organizational interests through win-win cooperation. We are all born with the inherent instinct towards self-preservation; but in an organizational setting, it is important that employees do what is best for the organization to ensure its livelihood.
The right side of this graphic shows the techniques managers and organizations use to focus employees’ energies on the mutuality of interest of organizational effectiveness.
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5. “Soft” Influence Tactics
Rational persuasion: Using logical arguments and facts to persuade another that a desired result will occur.
Inspirational Appeal: Arousing enthusiasm by appealing to one’s values and beliefs
Consultation: Asking for participation in decision making or planning a change
Ingratiation: Getting someone to do what you want by putting that person in a good mood or getting him or her to like you.
Personal appeal: Appealing to feelings of loyalty and friendship before making a request
Ranked in diminishing order on this and the next slide are nine generic influence tactics used in the workplace. The first five tactics are called “soft” tactics, the last four tactics are called “hard” tactics.
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6. “Hard” Influence Tactics
Exchange:: Promising some benefits in exchange for complying with a request.
Coalition Building: Persuading by seeking the assistance of others or by noting the support of others.
Legitimating: Pointing out one’s authority to make a request or verifying that it is consistent with prevailing organizational policies and practices.
Pressure: Seeking compliance by using demands, threats, or intimidation.
[No narration required.]
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7. Outcomes of Influence Attempts
Commitment - a strong positive response
The person will agree and carry out the request because they truly believes it is the right or best thing to do
Compliance – completion of request
The person will agree only because there is something positive in it for him/her or something negative will happen if they don’t
Resistance - a strong negative response
Request will be disregarded, influence attempt is unsuccessful
Three possible outcomes of the influence tactics you just learned are commitment, compliance, and resistance.
The best outcome is commitment because the target person’s intrinsic motivation will energize good performance.
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8. Test Your Knowledge Commitment Compliance Resistance
For each influence tactic identify the most likely outcome.
Commitment
Compliance
Resistance
Consultation
Rational Persuasion
Inspirational appeals
Ingratiation
Pressure
Coalition
Consultation – Commitment
Rational persuasion – Commitment
Inspirational appeals – Commitment
Ingratiation – Compliance – research has shown that this is does improve bosses’ impressions of their subordinates as long as it is perceived to be sincere
Pressure – Resistance, compliance; This is considered a “hard” tactic and is more often perceived as unfair. Studies have shown that unfair tactics are more likely to lead to resistance.
Coalition - compliance or resistance; if you feel ganged up on you may comply or resist depending on the situation.
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9. Power Concepts
Social Power: The ability to get things done with human, informational, and material resources
Power is not power OVER others
Power is the ability to GET THINGS DONE
In reading this description of social power, you can see how power is not a downward proposition exclusively. It also means having power to influence peers, customers, and managers.
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10. Power Concepts Personalized Power Socialized Power
used for personal gain
Socialized Power
used to create motivation
used to accomplish group goals
McClelland researched people’s needs and categorized them into a need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power. However, he made an important distinction between the need for personalized power and, what he called, socialized power.
Personalized power is when someone has the need to be selfish and use power for their own self-centered needs not for the good of the group or organization. Whereas, socialized power is used for the good of the organization and is often self-sacrificing.
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11. Test Your Knowledge
Jarrett has a strong need for power. He enjoys the challenge of making difficult decisions that have a major impact on the organization. At times he makes decisions that have negative consequences for himself and his team but are good for the larger organization. Jarrett….
Plays politics to get what he wants
Has personalized power
Demonstrates socialized power and mutuality of interest
Is driven to protect his self-interests
Jarrett has a strong need for power. He enjoys the challenge of making difficult decisions that have a major impact on the organization. At times he to makes decisions that have negative consequences for himself and his team but are good for the larger organization. Jarrett….
Plays politics to get what he wants
Has personalized power
Demonstrates socialized power and mutuality of interest
Is driven to protect his self-interests
Answer: C
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12. Sources of Power
Position – derived from one’s position and status within the organization
Reward: If you do it I’ll give you something
Coercive: If you don’t do it something bad will happen
Legitimate: Do it because the boss asks you to
Can be positive or negative
French and Raven have defined five sources of power. Three sources, listed on this slide, are byproducts of one’s position. The other two power sources, listed on the next slide, are earned by individuals through the respect they garner from others.
Because of their position, managers are able to offer bonuses, recognition, promotions, and other such rewards. In addition, their position gives them the authority to punish and withhold rewards in order to influence compliance. Finally, position gives managers decision authority that is used to affect subordinates’ behavior.
These sources of power can produce negative results if they are used threateningly or in a demeaning way. They can have positive results when they are focused constructively on job performance while being clearly aligned with the goals of the larger organization.
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13. Sources of Power
Personal – derived from one’s personal characteristics, relationship with others, and behavior towards others
Expert: Do it because I know a lot about this subject
Referent: Do it because you like me
Expert and referent sources of power are earned by individuals based on who they are and how they relate to and treat others.
How can you increase your expert power? Strategies include becoming an expert in your field, attending meetings of trade or professional associations, reading publications, keeping up with the latest technology, volunteering to learn something new, projecting a positive self-concept, and showing that you have the expertise.
A drawback to this type of power is that specializing can sometimes pigeon-hole you into a certain roles and preclude you from more general management opportunities.
The referent power base reminds us of a rather obvious truth—that individuals are influenced more by people they identify with and enjoy working with than with those they don’t.
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14. Test Your Knowledge
Which strategy would be most effective in each situation?
Upward influence
Peers
Downward
What is the best combination of strategies?
Reward
Coercive
Legitimate
Expert
Referent
Research has shown that leaders take a contingency approach when deciding what influence tactic to use. It will depend on the situation. If there is anticipated resistance or when the follower’s behavior violates important norms a legitimization or pressure tactic might be chosen.
When the leader stands to benefit they may use a personal appeal or ingratiation approach. When it is a peer and/or the objective is clearly in alignment with organizational objectives the rational approach would work best.
Upward influence – typically rational persuasion is most common – coalitions are also used
Lateral tactics – personal appeal, reciprocity, ingratiation, exchange, and legitimization are also used.
Downward – Expert and referent
In general, research has shown that the combined use of tactics is the most effective. However, that depends on the combination you choose.
What is the right combination?
Hard ones are most effective used by themselves.
Also, it is better to use a combination of softer tactics first and use the hard one’s only as a last resort.
Research has shown that using expert and referent power together get the best combinaltion of results and favorable reactions from lower-level employees.
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15. Empowerment
Empowerment sharing varying degrees of power with lower-level employees to tap their full potential
Empowerment involves considering power as not a zero-sum game but instead something that is unlimited and can be shared by all. Empowerment is a win-win proposition and should not be viewed as threatening, but rather as a means of helping managers and employees to develop new skills and reach career goals.
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16. The Evolution of Power: From Domination to Delegation
Power Distribution Followers are granted authority to make decisions
High
Power Sharing Manager/leader and followers jointly make decisions
Influence Sharing Manager/leader consults followers when making decisions
Degree of Empowerment
This figure shows the varying degrees of empowerment. Certainly a subordinate’s readiness for various tasks should also be a consideration as to what degree of empowerment is appropriate.
Authoritarian Power Manager/leader impose decisions
Domination
Consultation
Participation
None
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Delegation

17. Participative Management
Participative Management the process whereby employees play a direct role in:
Setting goals
Making decisions
Solving problems
Making changes in the organization
Participative Management can promote: (name three OB concepts)
Participative management is predicted to increase motivation because it helps employees fulfill three basic needs: autonomy, meaningfulness of work, and interpersonal contact. Satisfaction of these needs enhances feelings of acceptance, commitment, security, challenge, and satisfaction. In turn, these positive feelings can lead to increased innovation and performance.
The effectiveness of participative management depends on the design of the work, the level of trust between management and employees, and
the employees' readiness to participate.
Participative management can promote perceptions of procedural justice, organizational commitment, and job involvement.
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18. Delegation
Delegation granting decision-making authority to people at lower levels
How can delegation be used effectively?
Why are managers often reluctant to delegate?
The highest degree of empowerment is delegation.
How can delegation be used effectively? Research has shown that greater delegation was associated with the following factors.
When the employee is competent, the employee shares the manager’s task objectives, the manager has a long-standing and positive relationship with the employee, and when the lower-level person was also a supervisor.
Why are managers often reluctant to delegate?
Ask for comments… go to next slide for list of barriers to delegation
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19. Delegation Barriers to Delegation include:
Belief in the fallacy “if you want something done right, do it yourself”
Lack of confidence/trust in lower levels
Low self-confidence
Fear of being called lazy
Vague job definition
Fear of competition from those below
Reluctance to take risks involved in depending on others
Lack of controls that provide early warning of problems with delegated duties
Poor example set by bosses who do not delegate
Although delegation sounds easy enough, many managers find it hard to actually do. The barriers listed here often interfere with the process.
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20. Decreasing time to action to solve a problem
Personal Initiative
Taking Action
Asking for approval to act
Asking someone else to act
Telling someone about a problem
Noncompliance
Apathy
Levels of Action
Decreasing time to action to solve a problem
Personal Initiative: The other side of Delegation
Personal initiative occurs when individuals go beyond formal job requirements and become active self-starters.
Personal initiative is important in establishing trust with a manager and ensuring that he or she will think of you for developmental assignments to be delegated.
Following these tips can help you move toward personal initiative:
Go beyond the job.
Follow through on new ideas.
Don’t be defeated by criticism; rather learn from it.
Look ahead and around for opportunities.
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21. Randolph’s Empowerment Model
The Empowerment Plan
Share Information
Create Autonomy Through Structure
Let Teams Become the Hierarchy
The empowerment plan involves sharing information by sharing company performance information and helping people understand the business.
In addition, the plan requires creating autonomy through structure and letting teams become the hierarchy.
Organizations can create autonomy by creating a clear vision and clarifying the little pictures, creating new decision-making rules that support empowerment, and clarifying goals and roles collaboratively.
Organizations can let teams become the hierarchy by providing direction and training for new skills, providing encouragement and support for change, and gradually having managers let go of control.
Remember: Empowerment is not magic; It consists of a few simple steps and a lot of persistence
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22. Organizational Politics
Organizational Politics intentional enhancement of self-interest
…but the self-interest should be aligned with the org’s interests
“Politics isn’t about winning at all costs. It’s about maintaining relationships and getting results at the same time.” --John Eldred, MGMT Professor & Consultant, Kingston U. UK.
Ideally one’s self-interest is also aligned with organizational interests.
…but the self-interest should be aligned with the org’s interests
As we’ve discussed earlier, when personal self interests override the needs of the organization, overall performance and morale of employees can decline.
“Politics isn’t about
winning at all costs. It’s
about maintaining
relationships and getting
results at the same time.”
John Eldred
Political behavior is not necessarily bad if it is used to serve the good of the organization.
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23. Uncertainty Triggers Political Behavior
Sources of Uncertainty:
Unclear objectives
Vague performance measures
Ill-defined decision processes
Strong individual or group competition
Any type of change
Political maneuvering is triggered primarily by uncertainty. Five common sources of uncertainty are listed here.
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24. Test Your Knowledge
Given what we know about causes of political behavior, who would be most likely to engage in self-interested politics?
A new, relatively young employee starting out her career or
An older, more established employee.
Employee’s whose pay and promotion are based on their manager’s rankings of them
Employee’s whose pay and promotion are based on an established, known set of standards 1. 2.
Given what we know about causes of political behavior, who would be most likely to engage in politics?
A new, relatively young employee starting out her career or
An older, more established employee.
Answer: B, there is more uncertainty for newer employees
A financial advisor whose pay is 100% commission-based or
A financial analyst.
Answer: A, when employees understand that their performance will be measured based on a set of standards, they are more likely to work towards meeting those standards, rather than engaging in behaviors that will increase their liking with their manager. A system based on rankings is likely to lead to judgments being made both on objective indicators of performance but also are more likely to be influenced by non-job-related factors.
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25. Levels of Political Action in Organizations
Distinguishing Characteristics
Cooperative pursuit of general self-interests
Cooperative pursuit of group interests in specific issues
Individual pursuit of general self-interests
Network Level
Coalition Level
Individual Level
Although much political maneuvering occurs at the individual level, it also can involve group or collective action. Coalitions form because of an issue that matters to the individuals in the coalition; and once that issue is resolved, they typically disband.
Networks are a group of individuals who are together to promote each other and assist the members of the network in achieving their goals. For example, a Hispanic network at Avon has been established to support members’ career opportunities. Networks focus on people rather than issues and have longer-term purposes.
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26. Political Tactics
For each tactic, estimate the effectiveness of using this tactic to promote organizational objectives
Highly unlikely to be effective
May or may not be effective
Highly likely to be effective
Attacking or blaming others
Using information as a political tool
Creating a favorable image (impression management)
Developing a base of support
Praising others (ingratiation)
Forming political coalitions with strong allies
Associating with influential people
Creating obligations (reciprocity)
These political tactics are listed in descending order of occurrence.
What is the likelihood that each of these would be effective in promoting organizational interests as well as individual self-interests?
Attacking or blaming others - 3
Using information as a political tool - 2
Creating a favorable image (impression management) - 1
Developing a base of support - 1
Praising others (ingratiation) – 3 (as long as it is perceived to be sincere)
Forming political coalitions with strong allies – 2 (as long as those allies also have org’s interests at heart)
Associating with influential people - 3
Creating obligations (reciprocity) – 2 (indicates compliance rather than commitment, may or may not yield long-term benefits for org.
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27. Are You Politically Naïve, Sensible, or a Political Shark?
Favorite tactics
Techniques
Intent
Underlying attitude
Characteristics
None—the truth will win out
Tell it like it is
Avoid it at all costs
Politics is unpleasant
Naïve
Negotiate, bargain
Network; expand connections; use system to give and receive favors
Further departmental goals
Politics is necessary
Sensible
Bully; misuse information, cultivate and use “friends” and other contacts
Manipulate; use fraud and deceit when necessary
Self-serving and predatory
Politics is an opportunity
Sharks
You can get a general indication of your political tendencies by comparing your behavior with the characteristics in this table. Your book makes the distinction between organizational politics that serves one’s self interest and the organizational politics that serves the organization’s goals.
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28. How to Keep Organizational Politics Within Reasonable Bounds
Screen out overly political individuals at hiring time
Create and open-book management system
Make sure every employee knows how the business works and has a personal line of sight to key results
Have nonfinancial people interpret periodic financial and accounting statements for all employees
Establish formal conflict resolution and grievance processes
As an ethics filter, do only what you would feel comfortable doing on national television
Publicly recognize and reward people who get real results without political games
As we conclude this chapter, it is easy to see that organizational politics cannot be eliminated. A manager would be naïve to expect such an outcome. But political maneuvering can and should be managed to keep it constructive and within reasonable bounds. Therefore, following the practical steps in this list is recommended.
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