1. A Comparative Study A Comparative Study

3. Manganese Mining Phosphate Mining Coal Mining

6. Manganese is a chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn with an atomic number of 25. Manganese is a chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn with an atomic number of 25. It is found as a free element in nature (often in combination with iron), and in many minerals. It is found as a free element in nature (often in combination with iron), and in many minerals. It is a hard, yet brittle, grey white metal which resembles iron. It is a hard, yet brittle, grey white metal which resembles iron.

8. Manganese is a reactive element that easily combines with ions in water and air. In the Earth, manganese is found in a number of minerals of different chemical and physical properties, but is never found as a free metal in nature. The most important mineral is pyrolusite, because it is the main ore mineral for manganese. Manganese is a reactive element that easily combines with ions in water and air. In the Earth, manganese is found in a number of minerals of different chemical and physical properties, but is never found as a free metal in nature. The most important mineral is pyrolusite, because it is the main ore mineral for manganese. Trace amounts of manganese are very important for a better health coondition. It makes bones strong yet flexible, and it aids the body in absorbing Vitamin B1. It is also an important activator for the body to use enzymes. As little as 0.00002% Mn in the human body is essential. Studies have shown that lack of manganese leads to infertility in animals. Trace amounts of manganese are very important for a better health coondition. It makes bones strong yet flexible, and it aids the body in absorbing Vitamin B1. It is also an important activator for the body to use enzymes. As little as 0.00002% Mn in the human body is essential. Studies have shown that lack of manganese leads to infertility in animals.

9. Over 80% of the known world manganese resources are found in South Africa and Ukraine. Other important manganese deposits are in China, Australia, Brazil, Gabon, India, and Mexico. The United States imports manganese ore because the manganese resources in the U.S. are relatively low in manganese content per ton of ore. Importing these ores is presently more economic than mining them locally. Most manganese ore imported to the United States is used to manufacture intermediate manganese ferroalloy products and electrolytic manganese for use in dry-cell batteries. Only a small amount of the ore is directly used in the steel making process.

11. Steel becomes harder when it is alloyed with manganese. It has similar applications when alloyed with aluminum and copper. Hardened steel is important in the manufacture of construction materials like I-beams (24% of manganese consumption), machinery (14% of manganese consumption), and transportation (13% of manganese consumption). Manganese dioxide is used to: manufacture ferroalloys; manufacture dry cell batteries (it's a depolarizer); to "decolorize" glass; to prepare some chemicals, like oxygen and chlorine; and to dry black paints. Manganese sulfate (MnSO4) is used as a chemical intermediate and as a micronutrient in animal feeds and plant fertilizers.

12. Manganese metal is used as a brick and ceramic colorant, in copper and aluminum alloys, and as a chemical oxidizer and catalyst. Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is used as a bactericide and algicide in water and wastewater treatment, and as an oxidant in organic chemical synthesis.

16. Drawbacks of the pyrometallurgical roast process that will inhibit its future use include:  The roasting process is highly energy inefficient with a conventional EMD plant requiring more than double the energy of a same-sized plant employing the Mesa modified sulfur dioxide leach technology; and  The roasting process is highly polluting, emitting high carbon dioxide loads to the atmosphere, particulate pollutants that can pollute the surrounding environment and very insidious metal ion pollutants that can find its way into streams and aquifers, travelling large distances before appearing in drinking water or crops grown for human consumption.

17. MESA MODIFIED SULFUR DIOXIDE LEACH TECHNOLOGY

18. The principal sub-processes depicted in the diagram above are as follows:

20. A phosphate, also known as phosphorus, P or PO4, is, according to chemistry, a polyatomic ion or radical which consists of one phosphorus atom and four oxygen. In organic chemistry, the alkylated derivatives of phosphates are known as organophosphates. In biological systems, the phosphorus are found in the form of phosphate ion and various phosphate esters. Among others, it is found as the compounds DNA and RNA. Other compounds, like the substituted phosphines, do have their uses in organic chemistry but they do not seem to have any natural counterparts. Phosphate or phosphorus occurs naturally and is found in many phosphate minerals. Rare phosphide minerals may be found in meteorites but the elemental phosphorous and the phosphides are not found.

21. Phosphates are the naturally occurring form of the element phosphorus, found in many phosphate minerals. In mineralogy and geology, phosphate refers to a rock or ore containing phosphate ions. Inorganic phosphates are mined to obtain phosphorus for use in agriculture and industry. phosphorusphosphate minerals The largest phosphorite or rock phosphate deposits in North America lie in the Bone Valley region of central Florida, U.S.A., the Soda Springs region of Idaho, and the coast of North Carolina. Smaller deposits are located in Montana, Tennessee, Georgia and South Carolina near Charleston along Ashley Phosphate road. The small island nation of Nauru and its neighbor Banaba Island, which used to have massive phosphate deposits of the best quality, have been mined excessively. Rock phosphate can also be found in Egypt, Israel, Morocco, Navassa Island, Tunisia, Togo and Jordan, countries that have large phosphate mining industries.phosphoriteBone Valley

22. Phosphorite mines are primarily found in: North America: U.S.A., especially North Carolina, with lesser deposits in Florida, Idaho and Tennessee.North CarolinaFloridaIdaho Tennessee Africa: Morocco, mainly near Khouribga and Youssoufia; Senegal, Togo, Tunisia and Western Sahara.MoroccoKhouribga YoussoufiaSenegalTogoTunisia Western Sahara Middle East: Israel, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iraq, at the town of Akashat, near the Jordanian borders.IsraelSaudi ArabiaJordanIraqAkashat Oceania: Australia, Makatea, Nauru, Ocean Island.AustraliaMakateaNauruOcean Island

23. In 2007, at that time’s current rate of consumption, the supply of phosphorus was estimated to run out in 345 years. However, scientists are now claiming that a "Peak Phosphorus" will occur in 30 years and that "At current rates, reserves will be depleted in the next 50 to 100 years." In 2007, at that time’s current rate of consumption, the supply of phosphorus was estimated to run out in 345 years. However, scientists are now claiming that a "Peak Phosphorus" will occur in 30 years and that "At current rates, reserves will be depleted in the next 50 to 100 years."

24. In ecological terms, because of its important role in biological systems, phosphate is a highly sought after resource. Once used, it is often a limiting nutrient in environments, and its availability may govern the rate of growth of organisms. This is generally true of freshwater environments, whereas nitrogen is more often the limiting nutrient in marine (seawater) environments. Addition of high levels of phosphate to environments and to micro-environments in which it is typically rare can have significant ecological consequences. For example, blooms in the populations of some organisms at the expense of others, and the collapse of populations deprived of resources such as oxygen (see eutrophication) can occur.eutrophication In the context of pollution, phosphates are one component of total dissolved solids, a major indicator of water quality.

25. PPhosphate deposits can contain significant amounts of naturally occurring heavy metals.  Mining operations processing phosphate rock can leave tailing piles containing elevated levels of cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, chromium, and uranium.  Unless carefully managed, these waste products can leach heavy metals in the groundwater or nearby estuaries. ptake of these substances by plants and marine life can lead to concentrated levels of toxic heavy metals in food products.

27.  Phosphate ore is found from 15 to 50 feet below the ground, generally in equal parts of sand, clay and phosphate rock.  Draglines - or huge cranes that could easily hold several full- sized cars - remove the top layer of soil, and scoop up the phosphate matrix.  The matrix is put in a pit where high- pressure water guns create a slurry that can be pumped to a processing plant.

28.  The "beneficiation" process separates the sand and clay from the phosphate rock.  After the largest particles are removed, the slurry is run through a hydrocyclone that uses centrifugal force to remove the clay.  Waste clay is pumped to a settling pond.  Sand and sand- sized phosphate particles - called "flotation feed" - are put through a process which uses chemical reagents, water and physical force to separate the sand and phosphate.  Remaining sand is pumped back to the mine where it will be used to restore the site when mining is complete.  The rock is trucked to chemical processing plants.

30.  Coal is a readily combustible black or brownish- black sedimentary rock normally occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds.  The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure.  Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly sulfur, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

31. Over time, the chemical and physical properties of the plant remains (believed to mainly have been fern-like species antedating more modern plant and tree species) will be changed by geological action to create a solid material. This trapped atmospheric carbon in the ground in immense peat bogs will eventually be covered over and deeply buried by sediments under which they will metamorphose into coal. For the process of coal development to continue, the plant matter must be protected from biodegradation and oxidization, usually by mud or acidic water. This condition is provided by the wide shallow seas of the Carboniferous period. Coal develops as layers of plant matter accumulate at the bottom of a body of water.

32. Coal is the most abundant and economical fossil fuel in the world and over 6,400 million tons of coal were produced globally in 2008. Coal is the currently the most frequently used and the largest source of fuel for electricity generation. Coal produces about 42% of the world’s electricity. On a levelized cost of production basis, the global market value of coal-fired electricity exceeded $400 billion in 2008. More than 80% of the world’s coal reserves are located in the United States, China, India, Russia, Australia, and South Africa. Coal is primarily used for the generation of electricity, with smaller volumes used for industrial processes and steel production.

35. Technical and economic feasibility are evaluated based on:  regional geologic conditions;  overburden characteristics;  coal seam continuity, thickness, structure, quality, and depth;  strength of materials above and below the seam for roof and floor conditions;  topography (especially altitude and slope);  climate;  land ownership as it affects the availability of land for mining and access;  surface drainage patterns;  ground water conditions;  availability of labor and materials;  coal purchaser requirements in terms of tonnage, quality, and destination;  and capital investment requirements. Technical and economic feasibility are evaluated based on:  regional geologic conditions;  overburden characteristics;  coal seam continuity, thickness, structure, quality, and depth;  strength of materials above and below the seam for roof and floor conditions;  topography (especially altitude and slope);  climate;  land ownership as it affects the availability of land for mining and access;  surface drainage patterns;  ground water conditions;  availability of labor and materials;  coal purchaser requirements in terms of tonnage, quality, and destination;  and capital investment requirements.

36. Coal that occurs at depths of 180 to 300 ft (50 to 100 m) are usually deep mined but, in some cases, surface mining techniques can be used. For example, some western U.S. coal that occur at depths in excess of 200 ft (60 m) are mined by open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam 60–90 feet (20–30 m). Coals occurring below 300 ft (100 m) are usually deep mined.

37. When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open cut (also referred to as open cast, open pit, or strip ) mining methods. Open cast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. Large open cast mines can cover an area of many square kilometers and use very large pieces of equipment. This equipment can include the following: > draglines which operate by removing the overburden > power shovels > large trucks in which to transport overburden and coal > bucket wheel excavators > conveyors

38.  Strip mining exposes the coal by removing the overburden (the earth above the coal seam(s)) in long cuts or strips.  The spoil from the first strip is deposited in an area outside the planned mining area.  Spoil from subsequent cuts is deposited as fill in the previous cut after coal has been removed. Usually, the process is to drill the strip of overburden next to the previously mined strip.  The drill holes are filled with explosives and blasted.  The overburden is then removed using large earthmoving equipment such as draglines, shovel and trucks, excavator and trucks, or bucket-wheels and conveyors.  This overburden is put into the previously mined (and now empty) strip.  When all the overburden is removed, the underlying coal seam will be exposed (a 'block' of coal).  This block of coal may be drilled and blasted (if hard) or otherwise loaded onto trucks or conveyors for transport to the coal preparation (or wash) plant.  Once this strip is empty of coal, the process is repeated with a new strip being created next to it.  This method is most suitable for areas with flat terrain.

39.  The contour mining method consists of removing overburden from the seam in a pattern following the contours along a ridge or around a hillside.  This method is most commonly used in areas with rolling to steep terrain.  It was once common to deposit the spoil on the downslope side of the bench thus created, but this method of spoil disposal consumed much additional land and created severe landslide and erosion problems.  To alleviate these problems, a variety of methods were devised to use freshly cut overburden to refill mined-out areas.  These haul-back or lateral movement methods generally consist of an initial cut with the spoil deposited downslope or at some other site and spoil from the second cut refilling the first.  A ridge of undisturbed natural material 15 to 20 ft (5–6 m}} wide is often intentionally left at the outer edge of the mined area.  This barrier adds stability to the reclaimed slope by preventing spoil from slumping or sliding downhill.

40.  The limitations on contour strip mining are both economic and technical.  When the operation reaches a predetermined stripping ratio (tons of overburden/tons of coal), it is not profitable to continue.  Depending on the equipment available, it may not be technically feasible to exceed a certain height of high wall.  At this point, it is possible to produce more coal with the augering method in which spiral drills bore tunnels into a high wall laterally from the bench to extract coal without removing the overburden.

41.  Mountaintop coal mining is a surface mining practice involving removal of mountaintops to expose coal seams, and disposing of associated mining overburden in adjacent "valley fills."  Valley fills occur in steep terrain where there are limited disposal alternatives.  Mountaintop removal method combines area and contour strip mining methods. In areas with rolling or steep terrain with a coal seam occurring near the top of a ridge or hill, the entire top is removed in a series of parallel cuts.  Overburden is deposited in nearby valleys and hollows. This method usually leaves ridge and hill tops as flattened plateaus.

42.  The process is highly controversial for the drastic changes in topography, the practice of creating head-of-hollow-fills, or filling in valleys with mining debris, and for covering streams and disrupting ecosystems.  Spoil is placed at the head of a narrow, steep-sided valley or hollow.  In preparation for filling this area, vegetation and soil are removed and a rock drain constructed down the middle of the area to be filled, where a natural drainage course previously existed.  When the fill is completed, this underdrain will form a continuous water runoff system from the upper end of the valley to the lower end of the fill.  Typical head-of-hollow fills are graded and terraced to create permanently stable slopes.

43.  Room and pillar mining consists of coal deposits that are mined by cutting a network of rooms into the coal seam.  Pillars of coal are left behind in order to keep up the roof.  The pillars can make up to forty percent of the total coal in the seam.  However, this can be extracted at a later stage.

44.  Most coal seams are too deep underground for opencast mining and require underground mining, which method currently accounts for about 60% of world coal production.  In deep mining, the room and pillar or board and pillar method progresses along the seam, while pillars and timber are left standing to support the mine roof.  Once room and pillar mines have been developed to a stopping point (limited by geology, ventilation, or economics), a supplementary version of room and pillar mining, termed second mining or retreat mining, is commonly started.  Miners remove the coal in the pillars, thereby recovering as much coal from the coal seam as possible. A work area involved in pillar extraction is called a pillar section.  Modern pillar sections use remote-controlled equipment, including large hydraulic mobile roof-supports, which can prevent cave-ins until the miners and their equipment have left a work area.  The mobile roof supports are similar to a large dining-room table, but with hydraulic jacks for legs.  After the large pillars of coal have been mined away, the mobile roof support's legs shorten and it is withdrawn to a safe area.  The mine roof typically collapses once the mobile roof supports leave an area.

47. http://www.infomine.com/investment/charts.aspx?mv=1&f=f&r=1y&c=ccoal.xusd.umt, cmanganese.xusd.umt,cphosphates.xusd.umt#chart

48. http://www.infomine.com/investment/charts.aspx?mv=1&f=f&r=2y&c=ccoal.xusd.umt,c manganese.xusd.umt,cphosphates.xusd.umt#chart

49. http://www.infomine.com/investment/charts.aspx?mv=1&f=f&r=3y&c=ccoal.xusd.umt,cma nganese.xusd.umt,cphosphates.xusd.umt#chart

50. http://www.infomine.com/investment/charts.aspx?mv=1&f=f&r=5y&c=ccoal.xusd.umt,cma nganese.xusd.umt,cphosphates.xusd.umt#chart

51. http://www.infomine.com/investment/charts.aspx?mv=1&f=f&r=10y&c=ccoal.xusd.umt,c manganese.xusd.umt,cphosphates.xusd.umt#chart

53. Theoretical 5,000 Tons Per Day Open Pit Cost Model Production Mine Type:Surface Mine Stripping Ratio:1:1 Ore Production:5,000 tonnes per day Waste Production:5,000 tonnes per day Haul Distance - Oremeters1,068 Haul Distance - Wastemeters535 Total Resourcetonnes18,715,000 Hours per shift 10 Shifts per day2 Days per year312 Bench height - Oremeters5.49 Bench height - Wastemeters8.53 Powder factor - Orekg/tonne0.28 Powder factor - Wastekg/tonne0.23

54. Theoretical 5,000 Tons Per Day Open Pit Cost Model Development Preproduction Strippingtonnes150,000 Haul Road Constructionmeters1,603 Equipment Hydraulic Shovels1-4.5 cu.mt Front-end Loaders1-5.4 cu.mt Rear-dump Trucks 5-36.3 tonne Rotary Drills1-17.15 cm Bulldozers4-125 kW Graders1-150 kW Water Tankers1-9,500 liter Service/Tire Trucks3-6,800 kg gvw Bulk Trucks1-450 kg/min Light Plants4-13 kW Pumps2-4 kW Pickup Trucks4

55. Theoretical 5,000 Tons Per Day Open Pit Cost Model Buildings Shopsq.meters486 Drysq.meters221 Officesq.meters383 Warehouse sq.meters297 Anfo Storage Bincu.meters 20 Hourly Personnel Requirements Drillers2 Blasters2 Excavator Operators 4 Truck Drivers7 Equipment Operators9 Utility Operators2 Mechanics 4 Laborers/Maintenance 8 ---- Total Hourly Personnel38

56. Theoretical 5,000 Tons Per Day Open Pit Cost Model Salaried Personnel Requirements Manager1 Superintendent0 Foreman2 Engineer1 Geologist 1 Supervisor 2 Technician 4 Accountant 0 Clerk 1 Personnel 0 Secretary 2 Security 1 ------ Total Salaried Personnel 15

57. Theoretical 5,000 Tons Per Day Open Pit Cost Model Primary Supply Requirements Diesel Fuelliter/day5,262 ElectricitykWh/day639 Powderkg/day2,550 Caps#/day22 Primers#/day20 Drill Bits#/day0.07 Det. Cordm/day287 Cost Summary Operating Costs Supplies & Materials$/tonne ore$2.07 Labor$/tonne ore1.96 Administration$/tonne ore0.82 Sundry Items $/tonne ore0.48 ------ Total Operating Costs $5.33

58. Capital Costs Equipment $8,066,100 Haul Roads1,095,600 Pre-production Stripping393,500 Buildings1,632,700 Electrical System63,600 Working Capital 1,258,200 Engineering & Management2,025,300 Contingency1,453,500 ----------- Total Capital Costs$15,988,500 Total per Daily Tonne Ore & Waste$1,599 Theoretical 5,000 Tons Per Day Open Pit Cost Model

60.  Manganese compounds are less toxic than those of other widespread metals such as nickel and copper.  However, exposure to manganese dusts and fumes should not exceed the ceiling value of 5 mg/m 3 even for short periods because of its toxicity level.  Manganese poisoning has been linked to impaired motor skills and cognitive disorders.  The permanganate exhibits a higher toxicity than the manganese(II) compounds.  The fatal dose is about 10 g, and several fatal intoxications have occurred.  The strong oxidative effect leads to necrosis of the mucous membrane.  For example, the esophagus is affected if the permanganate is swallowed. Only a limited amount is absorbed by the intestines, but this small amount shows severe effects on the kidneys and on the liver.

61. In 2005, a study suggested a possible link between manganese inhalation and central nervous system toxicity in rats. It is hypothesized that long-term exposure to the naturally occurring manganese in shower water puts up to 8.7 million Americans at risk. A form of neurodegeneration similar to Parkinson Disease called “manganism" has been linked to manganese exposure amongst miners and smelters since the early 19th century. Allegations of inhalation-induced manganism have been made regarding the welding industry. Manganese exposure in United States is regulated by Ocupational Safety and Health Administration.

62. Phosphate ore must be chemically processed before it can be used as a water-soluble fertilizer. Mixing it with sulfuric acid creates phosphoric acid that's used in fertilizer. When sulfuric acid reacts with phosphate to form phosphoric acid, it produces a slightly radioactive byproduct known as phosphogypsum. According to the most recent figures from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, there are a billion tons of phosphogypsum stacked across the state and 30 million more tons are generated every year. Because it is radioactive, federal regulations ban its use in almost every situation. However, several pilot programs show that it may be a cost-effective alternative to fill material used for building roads.

63. Reclamation efforts developed over the past 30 years have been so successful that thousands of acres have been donated to local governments for parks. Providing habitat for wildlife also is a top priority, and researchers have identified 348 species of animals using reclaimed phosphate mines including the threatened scrub jay.

65. Coal mining can result in a number of adverse effects on the environment: 1.surface mining of coal completely eliminates existing vegetation, 2.destroys the genetic soil profile, 3.displaces or destroys wildlife and habitat, 4.degrades air quality, 5.alters current land uses, 6.to some extent permanently changes the general topography of the area mined which often results in a scarred landscape with no scenic value. (Rehabilitation or reclamation mitigates some of these concerns and is required by Federal Law, specifically the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977.) Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977

66. Conclusion From the extensive data gathered and analyzed, manganese mining turns out to be the best choice for Mr. Businessman in his plan to invest into the mining industry. Manganese has the highest market value among the three minerals and has a minimal destructive effect on man and his environment. In comparison, coal would have been a good choice considering the large demand for its production, but its cost in terms of environmental and social impact far outweighs its economic value. Furthermore, the trend in market value over the last 5-10 years has showed a relative decrease in coal demand and value, which may be attributed to the existence of alternative sources of energy/electricity. Manganese demand may have suffered the same fate as coal in the last 5 years, but its market value remains high.

68. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/page/coalnews/coalmar.html http://www.eoearth.org/article/Manganese http://www.onlineprnews.com/news/23913-1267529732-clean-coal-energy- technologies-markets-and-trends-worldwide-reports-now-available-on- reportsandreports.html http://venezuelanalysis.com/analysis/835 http://www.greenpeace.org/international/press/releases/true-cost-of-coal-27112008/ http://www.groundtruthtrekking.org/Issues/AlaskaCoal/CoalTrueCost.html http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=coal_home-basics http://costs.infomine.com/costdatacenter/miningcostmodel.aspx http://www.pbs.org/now/science/coal.html http://www.mbendi.com/indy/ming/p0005.htm http://www.mbendi.com/indy/ming/coal/p0005.htm http://www.mbendi.com/indy/ming/mang/p0005.htm http://www.mbendi.com/indy/ming/mang/p0010.htm http://www.mbendi.com/indy/ming/frtm/p0005.htm http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Coal_mining http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/mn.htm http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/manganese/ http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/manganese/mcs-2010-manga.pdf

69. http://www.researchwikis.com/Manganese_Marketing_Research http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=45226 http://www.mineweb.com/mineweb/view/mineweb/en/page72102?oid=95570&sn=D etail http://www.mineralszone.com/minerals/manganese.html http://www.mbendi.com/indy/ming/mang/p0010.htm http://www.australianminesatlas.gov.au/aimr/commodity/manganese_ore.jsp http://www.infomine.com/investment/historicalcharts/showcharts.asp?c=manganese http://www.mineralszone.com/minerals/phosphate.html http://www.infomine.com/investment/charts.aspx?mv=1&f=f&r=1y&c=cphosphates.xu sd.umt#chart http://www.primaryinfo.com/industry/manganese.htm