1. Combinatorial Properties of Periodic Orbits on an Equilateral Triangular Billiards Table Andrew Baxter  i    Seminar October 6 th, 2005 A dynamical systems problem involving geometry, analytic geometry, linear algebra, number theory, and combinatorics but not a bit of functional analysis.

2. Goals Explore the motion of a puck sliding across a frictionless triangular surface bounded by walls. –Billiard ball on a triangular table –Laser in a triangular mirror room Specifically, we search for paths that repeat themselves, known as “periodic orbits.” Two-fold problem: –Does every triangle admit a periodic orbit? –Count the number of periodic orbits on a given triangle (e.g. equilateral triangle).

3. Assumptions 1.A puck bounce follows the same rules as a reflection: The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. 2.A path terminates at a vertex

4. Definitions The path a puck follows is called the orbit Periodic orbits retrace after a finite number of bounces A period n orbit bounces n times before retracing.

5. Some Periodic Orbits

6. Unfolding Drawing from transformational geometry, we reflect the triangle, keeping the path straight. A B C

7. A B CA Unfolding Drawing from transformational geometry, we reflect the triangle, keeping the path straight.

8. A B CA B Unfolding Drawing from transformational geometry, we reflect the triangle, keeping the path straight.

9. A B C A’ B’ C’ A’’B’’ A periodic orbit exists when the puck returns to an image of the original point at the original angle. i.e. The puck returns to an image of the original point on an edge parallel to the original edge (a blue edge).

10. General Problem Conjecture: Every triangle admits a periodic orbit. Acute RightIsosceles

11. General Problem Any rational polygon has infinitely many periodic orbits (Masur) k  (Vorobets, Gal’perin, Stepin) m  + n  =  (Halbeisen, Hungerbuhler) m  = n  <  /2 (Vorobets, Gal’perin, Stepin)

12. Equilateral Triangle Masur’s result shows there are infinitely many periodic orbits on the equilateral triangle We will determine: –How to find periodic orbits –How to calculate their periods –How many orbits of a given period

13. Odd-Period Orbits There is a period 3 orbit on the equilateral triangle. Start on the midpoint of any side at a 60  angle. This is the only periodic orbit with an odd period. We will treat it as a degenerate period 6.

14. Equilateral Triangle We can unfold the triangle infinitely many times in all directions without overlap

15. Tessellation Unfolding infinitely many times in all directions creates a tessellation (a tiling) with equilateral triangles. Orbits appear as vectors

16. A Coordinate System Working in the tessellation is aided by imposing a coordinate system. –Set origin at the initial point –Align the y-axis with the right-leaning diagonals –Leave the x-axis alone –Define the triangles to be unit triangles.

17. Coordinates System Results Length Angle

18. Finding Periodic Orbits Theorem: An orbit (x, y) is periodic if and only if x ≡ y (mod 3) (x and y are integers)

19. Calculating Period Here “Period” means the number of lines of the tessellation that the vector crosses, not the minimum number of bounces before the orbit repeats itself.

20. Calculating Period (proof) Period(x, y) = h + r + l Overlaying parallelograms over the vector shows l = r + h When x and y are integers, r = x and h = y The period 22 orbit (4, 7)

21. Locating Orbits For any given n, the terminal points of the period 2n orbits lie in the same left-leaning channel.

22. Checkpoint We want to determine  How to find periodic orbits  How to calculate their periods  Existence of a period 2n orbit for any n  How many period 2n orbits for any n

23. Simplifications Two simplifications make our work easier 1.Restrict our attention to the region 0 ≤ x ≤ y. 2.k iterations of a period n orbit are counted as a period kn orbit. This is called a k-fold iteration or a period kn iterated orbit containing k iterations.

24. Existence of Orbits For any natural number n > 1, is there a period 2n orbit? –Yes. If n is even, use. If n is odd, use. –Using is a blatant abuse of the simplification that a k-fold iteration of period n orbits is a new period kn orbits since it is a -fold iteration of (1,1)

25. Counting Orbits How many period 2n orbits are there? –For example, there are two period 22 orbits (n = 11) (1,10)(4,7)

26. Counting Orbits We wish to count the number of pairs of integers (x, y) such that 1.x + y = n, and 2.x ≡ y (mod 3) This is a special case of a more general combinatorics problem

27. Adventures in Combinatorics How many ways can you partition n into k nonnegative addends a 1, a 2, …, a k such that 1.a 1 + a 2 + … + a k = n 2.a 1 ≡ a 2 ≡ … ≡ a k (mod m) for a given m. We need k = 2, m = 3 for our purposes.

28. A Bijection There is a bijection between the set of these k-part modulo m partitions of n and the number of partitions of n using only the addends k, m, 2m, …, (k-1)m.

29. A Generating Function The number of partitions of n using only k, m, 2m, …, (k-1)m as parts is known to have the following generating function

30. An Explicit Formula For k = 2 and m = 3, This O(n) is the number of pairs (x, y), 0 ≤ x ≤ y, that represent period 2n orbits

31. Checkpoint We wanted to determine  How to find periodic orbits  How to calculate their periods  Existence of a period 2n orbit for any n  How many period 2n orbits for any n We still need to address the simplification we made earlier that counts k-fold iterations of period n orbits as period kn orbits.

32. Iterated Orbits Definition: Given periodic orbit (x, y), let d be the largest value such that (x/d, y/d) is a periodic orbit. If d=1, then the orbit is prime. Otherwise, the orbit contains d iterations. Examples: (1, 4) is prime (4, 10) contains 2 iterations of (2, 5) (3, 6) is prime (3, 12) contains 3 iterations of (1, 4)

33. New Goals We now want to determine:  How to determine if a vector (x, y) represents a prime orbit  Is there a prime period 2n orbit for any given n?  For a given n, how many prime orbits are there?

34. Proving Primality Theorem: A periodic orbit (x, y) is prime if and only if one of the following is true: 1.gcd(x,y)=1, or 2.If (x, y) = (3a,3b), then a≠b (mod 3) and gcd(a,b)=1 Examples: (1, 4) is prime because gcd(1, 4) = 1 (4, 10) contains iterates because gcd(4, 10) = 2 (3, 6) is prime because 1≠2 (mod 3) and gcd(1, 2)=1 (3, 12) contains iterates because 1 ≡ 4 (mod 3)

35. Existence of Prime Orbits There exists a prime period 2n orbit if an only if n is a natural number such that n ≠ 1, 4, 6, or 10. The prime orbit has the form:

36. Counting Iterated Orbits Orbits containing iterates are easier to count than prime orbits. There are I(n) iterated orbits, where  (d) is the Möbius function

37. Counting Prime Orbits Every periodic orbit contains iterates or is prime, so there are P(n) = O(n) – I(n) prime orbits. More directly,

38. Derivation of D(n) (x, y)2-fold5-fold10-foldPrime (1, 49)  (4, 46) (7, 43) (10, 40) (13, 37) (16, 34) (19, 31) (22, 28) (25, 25) Total4 (For n = 50 = 2∙5 2 )

39. Calculating I(n) and P(n) How many period 100 orbits are prime? (n = 50 = 2∙5 2 )

40. Another Example How many period 88200 orbits are prime? (n = 44100 = 2 2 ∙3 2 ∙5 2 ∙7 2 )

41. An Interesting Corollary P(p) = O(p) if and only if p is prime. –All period 2p orbits are prime if and only if p is prime.

42. More Sample Values 2n O(n)O(n)I(n)I(n)P(n)P(n) O(n)O(n)I(n)I(n)P(n)P(n) 410120220 610122202 811024321 1010126202 1222028321 1410130321 1621132321 1821134303

43. Graph of Sample Values Purple: O(n) Red: P(n) Blue: I(n) 2n2n

44. Cumulative Functions The total number of orbits of period 2n or less. The number of prime orbits of period 2n or less. The proportion of orbits of period 2n or less that are prime Consider the following three functions

45. Analytic Number Theory and are both approximately quadratic