1. Science
- An area of knowing

2. THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE KNOWER(S) AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE NATURAL SCIENCES
MATHEMATICS
WAYS OF KNOWING
HUMAN SCIENCES
EMOTION
LANGUAGE
KNOWER(S)
REASON
ETHICS
HISTORY
SENSE PERCEPTION
THE ARTS

3. Aims Understand what elements constitute the scientific method
Recognize the strengths and limits of the scientific method
Know what makes a scientific claim and know what pseudo science is
Appreciate the meaning of truth in a scientific context
Discuss the interplay between science and other AOK

4. Group work (resource booklet: natural science)
Team 1: What is the scientific method (pp.3, 4,5) and its strengths
Team 2: What is a paradigm, a paradigm shift (with examples) – pp 6,7, 11
Team 3: What are the possible limitations of science (Humes problem of induction) pp 8
Team 4: what is ‘falsification’ – Karl Popper pp. 9-10
Team 5: science and pseudo-science pp Lagemaat

5. The Scientific Model Theory is confirmed and tentatively accepted
Experimental data or observation
Prediction and experimental test
Inductive hypothesis
Theory is falsified and rejected
The Scientific Model

6. HUME’S PROBLEM OF INDUCTION
The fact that all observed metals expand when heated doesn’t mean that all metals expand when heated  logical fallacy of induction (from particular to general)

7. FALSIFICATION
Popper tried to resolve the problem of induction in the scientific method suggesting that scientists should spend their time trying to prove that their hypotheses are false
In this way scientists could be sure of their results
He suggested to test in such way well proven hypotheses
Any theory that resists our best efforts to falsify it should be provisionally accepted as the best we have for the time being
Popper’s theory is fascinating but not very useful

8. Criticism of Popper
Falsification is conclusive in theory but not in practice (we consider experiments that prove the theory wrong as mistakes in observation)
Auxiliary hypotheses can rescue a falsified theory (when our theory is proven wrong with consider some additional hypothesis that may explain it – Neptune!)
The concept of proof is only relevant to logic and mathematics, not science

9. Science as a HUMAN Endeavour
Thomas Khun
Kuhn was a historian of science, who noticed that, as a matter of historical fact, scientists did not work by falsification. He said that scientists hold some fundamental beliefs (ie paradigms) so strongly that they are sometimes not prepared to allow them to be falsified; they may ignore or disbelieve findings which seem to disprove them.

10. Example
The paradigm of the earth being the centre of the Universe was technically falsified by Galileo and Kepler but was not accepted for hundreds of years. Why?
Can you think of another?

11. Consider……..
We assume life does not exist on other planets because we believe all life must be based on the element carbon and needs oxygen, light etc to survive.
Life has been noted in what appears to be very hostile conditions: volcanoes, frozen tundra, submarine volcanic vents etc.
So….. Is there life on Mars, Jupiter etc?

12. If you did an experiment which seemed to have falsified the conservation of energy theory what would you do?
Do you think Khun’s model is an accurate description of science?

13. Science - a Universal tool?
What distinguishes natural Sciences from other sciences eg Social Science?
The amazing thing about nature is that, as far as we know, the underlying laws that govern it are unchangeable.

14. Reductionism
'People fall in love because of their psychological make-up. Psychology reduces to biology; biology to anatomy; anatomy to chemistry; chemistry to physics. So to be the best psychologist you can be, you should study physics.' On what grounds would you accept or reject this statement?
Imagine that at some future date we eventually find all the laws of nature -'the rules of the game'. What would that mean for our ability to make things and control the world?

15. Some sciences are increasingly taking a holistic approach whereby they try to avoid reduction. Does this mean that they are still sciences, or have they become something else?
Think back over your science education. What did you learn about the way science works?
Are the theories discussed in this topic realistic about the way sciences work?
Are they the way sciences should work?
What do you imagine professional scientists think makes the natural sciences so special.

16. Science and Creativity
Scientists make new hypotheses?
1. Attempt-to form hypotheses for the following:
Stars twinkle.
Birds sing.
Air is odourless.
Cuckoos find their way from Singapore to China by themselves.
Berries taste good.
When you release a hydrogen-filled balloon it rises.

17. Are your hypotheses testable. If so, how
Are your hypotheses testable? If so, how? 2 Suppose your new hypothesis has been tested and it failed. We reject it. Come up with another testable hypothesis. 3 It has been said that the most creative minds belonged to Scientists. Einstein’s general theory of relativity is no less a masterpiece than Mozart’s “requiem” or a painting by Picasso. Do you agree? Discuss and come up with some “fors” and “againsts”

18. SUMMARY TASK:
We have considered at least four aspects of sciences: inductivism, falsification, paradigms and creativity.
Think of some examples of each aspect.
What are the respective roles of each component?
Are any components more important than others?
What are the problems with each aspect?

19. TASK: science and…. Label your poster
Team 1: inductivism (Hume’s problem) Booklet pp 8
Team 2: falsification (K. Popper) Booklet pp 9-10
Team 3: paradigm (T. Khun) Booklet pp 7 and 11
Team 4: creativity. Booklet pp 3-5

20. TASK Write, in your own words, a short summary (3 paragraphs) of
Hume’s criticism of induction in science
Popper’s falsification theory
Kuhn’s concept of paradigm within the philosophy of science
End 1 pm

21. Science and pseudo science
Physics
Acupuncture
Astrology
Creationism
Crystology
Chemistry
Graphology
Homeopathy
phrenology
biology

22. Science and pseudo science
Scientific hypotheses (claims) are testable
Scientific hypotheses (claims) are clearly stated and make precise predictions
Scientific hypotheses (claims) They are always valid (no ad hoc exception)
Pseudo science
Claims are vague, allow for ad hoc exceptions,

23. (scientific) claims
Which of the following statements make scientifically testable claims?
In 2010 you may or may not win the lottery
It always rains on Tuesday
We have all lived past lives, but most of us are too enlightened to remember them
Real men don’t cry
Unlike magnetic poles attract each other
Everyone is selfish
Acid turn litimus paper red
Something surprising will happen to you next week

24. Problems of the scientific method
Observation
1 Relevance
2 Expectations
3 Expert seeing
4 The observer effect
Testing hypotheses
5 Confirmation bias
6 Background assumptions
7 Many different hypotheses are consistent with a given set of data  the principle of simplicity, beauty and elegance
Law
8 Problem of induction

25. Science and truth
There is no absolute proof in science and we cannot neither conclusively verify nor falsify an hypothesis
but
If a scientific theory accounts for the known evidence, is internally consistent, and works in practice then we should – for the time being – accept it as true.
We should maintain a critical attitude to our scientific beliefs and be wiling to question our assumptions

26. 2002 Essay Title
"The arts deal in the particular, the individual and the personal while the sciences deal in the general, the universal and the collective." To what extent does this statement obscure the nature of both “Areas of Knowledge”?

27. Scientific Claims? The Earth is flat.
The Earth is not exactly round, but it is actually a bit wider at the equator.
UFOs regularly visit Earth to abduct humans for experimentation.
God created the world in seven days approximately 5000 years ago.
God created the Universe.
God did not create the Universe.
In some remote areas of China, there are people who can jump higher than 10 m.

28. Scientific Claims?
In some remote areas of China, there are people who can jump higher than 10 m, but their society is so secretive that they will never permit outside observers to witness it.
Love is more important to human beings than anything else.
If you ask people what they find most important in a multiple choice question, and you include love as a possible answer, then more than 75 per cent will put love at the top of their list.
Saying 'I love you' to your partner.
Picasso's painting 'Cannes, 4a.m.' is a beautiful piece of art.

29. How complete is Science?
If Science never proves anything right, why do we trust it so much?
Think about the Science you learn at school. How likely do you think it is wrong or incomplete?

30. Consider……..
What are the limitations of scientific enquiry? (In other words, is there anything which science cannot tell us about the world?)
Can religion or myth be used to explain things which science cannot?
Should scientists be held morally responsible for their discoveries? Is any area of scientific knowledge morally unacceptable?
What do you think is meant by the words, "It is through science we prove, but through intuition that we discover"?