1. Chapter 13 DNA, RNA and Proteins
Section 1: the structure of DNA

2. DNA DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) contains the information of life
It holds the blueprints (instructions) for making essential proteins that are needed for life
Three major experiments led to the conclusion that DNA is the genetic material in cells. These experiments were performed by Griffith, Avery, Hershey, and Chase.

3. Griffith’s Experiment of Transformation

4. Griffith’s Experiment of Transformation
Two types of bacteria: S strain with capsule (causes pneumonia and victim dies) and R strain without capsule (does not cause pneumonia and victim lives)
Mice injected with regular S strain die
Mice injected with heat-killed S strain live
Mice injected with R strain live
Mice injected with combination of R strain and heat-killed S strain die; R strain had “transformed” into S strain
Conclusion: genetic material could be transferred between cells; this is transformation

5. Oswald Avery’s Experiment with Nucleic Acids
R strain bacteria that lacked protein or RNA could transform into S strain bacteria
R strain bacteria that lacked DNA could not transform into S strain bacteria
Conclusion: DNA is responsible for transformation in bacteria

6. Hershey and Chase Bacteriophage Experiment
Hershey-Chase Experiment

7. DNA Structure
DNA is a very long molecule that is capable of holding lots of information
It is a nucleic acid (as is RNA) and is composed of four nucleotides.
Each DNA nucleotide consists of these 3 parts (there are some differences for RNA):
Sugar (deoxyribose, the name of the sugar in DNA that gives it its name)
Phosphate
Nitrogen base (guanine, thymine, cytosine, or adenine)

9. A nucleic acid is a series of nucleotides.
How do the nucleotides come together to make a nucleic acid?
Condensation (water is removed to connect monomers)
There are two main categories of bases: purines and pyrimidines.
The purines consist of two rings. Guanine and adenine are purines.
The pyrimidines consist of one ring. Cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines (notice all three of these words have a “y” in them—use that to help you remember).

11. The base-pairing rules: (Chargaff)
DNA consists of many nucleotides in the form of a double helix (spiral). The sugars and phosphates comprise the “backbone”, and the bases pair on the inside.
The base-pairing rules: (Chargaff)
Adenine – Thymine (just remember the word “at”)
Cytosine – Guanine
The base pairs on the inside of the DNA ladder are like the teeth of a zipper
The base pairs are held together by weak hydrogen bonds.
Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with thymine, while cytosine forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine

12. Base-Pairing Rule

13. Characteristics Nucleotides bond to each other to form one strand
Two strands bond to each other (via complementary base pairing) to form the double stranded DNA molecule
Two strands twist to form the double helix (visualize a ladder that is twisted)
Sides of the ladder are formed by alternating sugar and phosphate units
Rungs of the ladder consist of bonded pairs of nitrogen bases (they are joined by weak hydrogen bonds)
Rungs of the ladder are always uniform in length because one base is always a purine (2 ring) and the other is always a pyrimidine (1 ring); A-T, C-G
Right hand twist of the ladder

14. Complementary strands
Sugar-Phosphate Backbone
Bases in the middle
Weak hydrogen bonds between bases

15. Discovery of the Structure of DNA
James Watson and Francis Crick—using research collected by Erwin Chargaff, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin—proposed the structure of DNA in 1953.
Erwin Chargaff— the amount of adenine is always equal to the amount of thymine and the amount of cytosine is always equal to the amount of guanine
Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins—used X-ray diffraction that showed the DNA molecule resembled a coiled helix and was composed of two chains of nucleotides

17. Complementary strands: the arrangement of nitrogen bases along one strand is the exact complement of the bases on the other strand.
Ex: if one strand is ATTCGCCA, then the other strand is TAAGCGGT.
* Note that the sequence of DNA is not random—it serves as a code for the making of proteins.
ATTCGCCA
TAAGCGGT

18. Two Primary Activities of DNA
Segments of DNA called genes store information for making proteins
It can copy itself exactly for new cells process of replication

19. Section 13.2: Replication of DNA
Purpose is so that every new cell receives a complete copy of the genetic code.
Replication occurs in the nucleus during the S phase of interphase.
When the two complementary strands of DNA are separated, each strand can serve as a pattern to make a new complementary strand.

20. Process: (pages )
An enzyme, DNA helicase, unwinds the two complementary strands of DNA and breaks the hydrogen bonds between nitrogen bases that hold the strands together; “Unzipping the DNA”
Nucleotide bases floating free in the nucleus react with unpaired bases that are now exposed on each strand
The complementary bases bond via hydrogen bonds by DNA polymerase
Two new DNA molecules are formed that are exact replicas of the original DNA

21. DNA is copied many sections at a time, so it goes quickly.
DNA is copied very accurately because of “proofreading” mechanism in DNA polymerase.
If a mistake is made, this enzyme can backtrack and replace the wrong nitrogen base.

22. Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Replication
Because prokaryotic DNA is a single loop, replication begins at one place along the loop
Replication occurs in opposite directions until both replication forks meet

23. Replication of an entire human chromosome occurs in about eight hours
Eukaryotic DNA is linear and replication occurs at many sites along a chromosome
This allows faster replication than prokaryotic replication
Replication “bubbles” are formed along the chromosome
If a scientist took all of the DNA in a single human cell and laid the DNA in one line, the line would be 2 m long!
Replication of an entire human chromosome occurs in about eight hours