1. Communicative Tasks and the Language Curriculum Jason Hung-chi Chao ( 趙鴻基 )

2. Introduction In task-based language teaching (TBLT), syllabus content and instructional processes are selected with reference to the communicative tasks which learners (either actually or potentially) need to engage in outside the classroom and also with reference to theoretical and empirical insights into those social and psycholinguistic processes which facilitate language acquisition. In task-based language teaching (TBLT), syllabus content and instructional processes are selected with reference to the communicative tasks which learners (either actually or potentially) need to engage in outside the classroom and also with reference to theoretical and empirical insights into those social and psycholinguistic processes which facilitate language acquisition.

3. Features of TBLT 1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language 2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation 3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but also on the learning process itself 4. An enhancement of the learner ’ s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning 5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom

4. The Conceptual Basis While teacher education programs taught trainees to plan, implement, and evaluate their programs according to “ rational ” model which begins with objectives and moves through tasks to evaluation (Tyler, 1949), the reality was that once they began practicing, teachers tended to focus on pedagogic tasks While teacher education programs taught trainees to plan, implement, and evaluate their programs according to “ rational ” model which begins with objectives and moves through tasks to evaluation (Tyler, 1949), the reality was that once they began practicing, teachers tended to focus on pedagogic tasks Task-based learning ’ s close relationship with experiential learning: Learning is thus seen as a cyclical process integrating immediate experience, reflection, abstract conceptualization and action (Kohonen, in press) Task-based learning ’ s close relationship with experiential learning: Learning is thus seen as a cyclical process integrating immediate experience, reflection, abstract conceptualization and action (Kohonen, in press)

5. Definitions of Tasks Long (1985a) suggests that a task is nothing more or less than the things people do in everyday life Long (1985a) suggests that a task is nothing more or less than the things people do in everyday life The Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics suggests that a task is any activity or action carried out as the result of processing or understanding language The Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics suggests that a task is any activity or action carried out as the result of processing or understanding language Breen (1987) suggests that a task is any structured language learning endeavour which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a specified working procedure, and a range of outcomes for those who undertake that task Breen (1987) suggests that a task is any structured language learning endeavour which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a specified working procedure, and a range of outcomes for those who undertake that task Nunan suggests that tasks can be conceptualized in terms of the curricular goals they are intended to serve, the input data which forms the point of departure for the task, and the activities or procedures which the learner undertake in the completion of the task Nunan suggests that tasks can be conceptualized in terms of the curricular goals they are intended to serve, the input data which forms the point of departure for the task, and the activities or procedures which the learner undertake in the completion of the task

6. The Curricular Basis Traditionally, selection of classroom activities was driven by curriculum goals specified in phonological, morphosyntactic, and lexical terms Traditionally, selection of classroom activities was driven by curriculum goals specified in phonological, morphosyntactic, and lexical terms In a task-based curriculum, two different routes in decision- making process: In a task-based curriculum, two different routes in decision- making process: 1. based on the rehearsal rationale 2. based on the psycholinguistic rational Ideally, task selection should occur with reference both to target task rationale and psycholinguistic principles Ideally, task selection should occur with reference both to target task rationale and psycholinguistic principles Conceptually, TBLT has been influenced by developments in mainstream education as well as by major conceptual shifts in our understanding of the nature of language and language learning Conceptually, TBLT has been influenced by developments in mainstream education as well as by major conceptual shifts in our understanding of the nature of language and language learning

7. The Empirical Basis One of the strengths of TBLT is that the conceptual basis is supported by a strong empirical tradition One of the strengths of TBLT is that the conceptual basis is supported by a strong empirical tradition Tasks can be conceptualized in terms of the key elements: Tasks can be conceptualized in terms of the key elements: - goals - input data - activities/procedures - roles - settings

8. Goals Typical goal statements: Typical goal statements: 1. To develop the skills in academic study 2. To obtain a promotion from unskilled worker to site supervisor 3. To communicate socially in the target language 4. To develop the survival skills necessary to obtain goods and services 5. To read the literature of the target culture Brindley (1984): Brindley (1984): - programs in which the goals were explicit and reflected the communicative needs of the learners had greater face validity than communicative needs of the learners had greater face validity than those in which the goals were either unstated, inexplicit, or which did those in which the goals were either unstated, inexplicit, or which did not reflect learners ’ goals not reflect learners ’ goals

9. Input Data Key question: What factors are implicated in the difficulty of aural and written tasks? Key question: What factors are implicated in the difficulty of aural and written tasks? Listening comprehension: Listening comprehension: - factors found by Brown and Yule (1983): 1. the number of elements in the text and the ease and difficulty of distinguishing 1. the number of elements in the text and the ease and difficulty of distinguishing between them between them 2. the text type 2. the text type - factors found by Anderson and Lynch (1988) 1. the way the information is organized 1. the way the information is organized 2. he familiarity of the topic 2. he familiarity of the topic 3. the explicitness and sufficiency of the information 3. the explicitness and sufficiency of the information 4. the type of referring expressions 4. the type of referring expressions 5. the text type 5. the text type Reading comprehension: Reading comprehension: - Nunan (1984): 1. logical relationships of the type marked by conjunctions were more 1. logical relationships of the type marked by conjunctions were more difficult than referential and lexical relationships difficult than referential and lexical relationships 2. content familiarity was more significant than grammatical complexity in 2. content familiarity was more significant than grammatical complexity in determining the difficulty or reading determining the difficulty or reading

10. Activities/Procedures Key question: What tasks seem to be most helpful in facilitating second language acquisition? Key question: What tasks seem to be most helpful in facilitating second language acquisition? Long (1981): Long (1981): - two-way tasks stimulated significantly more modified interactions than one- way tasks way tasks Doughty and Pica (1986): Doughty and Pica (1986): - required information-exchange tasks generated significantly more modified interaction than tasks in which the exchange of information was optional interaction than tasks in which the exchange of information was optional Berwick (1988, in press): Berwick (1988, in press): - the different functional purposes stimulated different morphosyntactic realizations realizations Nunan: Nunan: - the different task types stimulated very different interactional patterns - with lower-intermediate to intermediate learners, the relatively closed tasks stimulate more modified interaction than relatively open tasks stimulate more modified interaction than relatively open tasks

11. Teacher/Learner Roles Bruton and Samuda (1980): Bruton and Samuda (1980): - learners are capable of correcting each other successfully successfully Porter (1986): Porter (1986): - learners produce more talk with other learners than with native-speaker partners, and learners do not learn with native-speaker partners, and learners do not learn each other ’ s errors each other ’ s errors Gass and Varonis (1985): Gass and Varonis (1985): - there were advantages, when conducting groupwork, to pairing learners of different proficiency levels as well as from different learners of different proficiency levels as well as from different language backgrounds language backgrounds

12. Setting Long, Adams, and Castanos (1976): Long, Adams, and Castanos (1976): - small-group tasks prompt students to use a greater range of language, functions than greater range of language, functions than teacher-fronted tasks teacher-fronted tasks Montagomery and Eisenstein (1985): Montagomery and Eisenstein (1985): - supplementing classroom tasks with community-based experiences resulted in community-based experiences resulted in significantly increased language gains significantly increased language gains

13. Future Directions: Extending the Research Agenda Two recent investigations: Two recent investigations: 1. Berwick (1988; in press): - research: explored differences at the level of lexicogrammar attributable - research: explored differences at the level of lexicogrammar attributable to different task to different task - result: task type is an important determinant of lexicogrammatical - result: task type is an important determinant of lexicogrammatical exponents exponents - significance: exemplifies the value of research programs into task-based - significance: exemplifies the value of research programs into task-based language teaching and learning language teaching and learning 2. Duffy (in press): - study: carried out a longitudinal case of a single learner, investigating the - study: carried out a longitudinal case of a single learner, investigating the extent to which performance on different types of tasks yield different extent to which performance on different types of tasks yield different types of information on the subject ’ s interlanguage types of information on the subject ’ s interlanguage - result: while there was some evidence of task-related variability, the - result: while there was some evidence of task-related variability, the subject ’ s performance from one date-collection period to the next also subject ’ s performance from one date-collection period to the next also exhibited variability exhibited variability - significance: represents a departure from the cross-sectional research - significance: represents a departure from the cross-sectional research which has typified the field since its inception which has typified the field since its inception

14. Questions for discussion 1. What would you do to help students improve their listening comprehension? 2. How to make everyone participate in a group discussion actively? 3. If you are going to teach for 3 hours, will you teach for 3 hours in a day, or will you divide the 3 hours to teach in different days?

15. Reference Nunan, D (1991). Communicative Tasks and the Language Curriculum, TESOL Quarterly, 25(2), 279-295.