1. Difference between Disease and Illness Disease Pathological state of an individual due to infection, tissue-degeneration, trauma, toxic exposure, carcinogenesis, etc. Illness Feelings of malaise, pain, disorientation, dysfunctionality and other complaints that accompany a disease

2. Illness Culture and Psychology play a role in our feelings of disease Beliefs Suggestions Expectations Self-serving biases Self-deception Privileged status of being ill May convince ourselves of a disease

3. Reinforcement When we try something and it works we are more likely to try it again in the future Leads to an increase in behavior Drive around 3 times for parking space and find a close one – more likely next time to drive around 3 times Taking aspirin to remove a headache – more likely to take aspirin in the future

4. 10 Other Explanations 1. The Placebo Effect Taking a pill or treatment can make you feel better Double-blind study Neither the researcher nor the participant know which group they are in Need to experiment with drugs to know 2. Spontaneous Remission Sometimes we get better for no reason Lourdes can help

5. 10 Other Explanations 3. Disease ran its natural course Superstitious behavior 4. Cyclical Nature of Disease Symptoms come and go Were you cured or was it remitted? 5. Misdiagnosis Virus and medication 6. The “Worried Well” We complain and get treatment and don’t complain – were we cured?

6. 10 Other Explanations 7. Symptomatic Relief Taking aspirin for a headache – it goes away Maybe it is a brain tumor 8. Hedged Bets Using both pseudoscientific and scientific methods 9. Derivative Benefits Positive thinking, attitude and environment can increase healthiness When this happens, we increase healthiness

7. 10 Other Explanations 10. Psychological Distortion of Reality Cognitive Dissonance When there are 2 competing ideas we are motivated to reduce the tension We change beliefs and create new ones When treatment doesn’t work we may experience Cognitive Dissonance Time and money were spent but treatment did not work

8. Probabilistic General Principles General Principles of Science allows us to expand knowledge Correlation Isolated examples do not disrupt the overall general trend Newsworthy Counterexamples Our own experience is only a testimonial

9. Plausibility - Homeopathy German Physician – Samuel Hahnemann Based on 2 premises The Law of Similars The same substance that causes the disease will cure the disease No plausible mechanism of action The Law of Infinitesimals The substance must be diluted to increase potency Dose Response Curve Increasingly high doses will increasingly strong effects Dilution Limit Avogadro’s Number The number of times you can dilute something before it no longer exists

10. Plausibility - Homeopathy Water Memory Dilution occurs less now Goes against Homeopathy theory Still leaves less of the substance than before dilution Water can retain memory even though the substance has reached Avogadro’s Number Only 1 study supports No replication When we drink water, we are drinking everything that the water has previously come into contact with