1. Lecture 8 – Nonlinear Programming Models Topics General formulations Local vs. global solutions Solution characteristics Convexity and convex programming Examples

2. In LP... the objective function & constraints are linear and the problems are “easy” to solve. Many real-world engineering and business problems have nonlinear elements and are hard to solve. Nonlinear Optimization

3. Minimize f(x) s.t. g i (x) ( , , =) b i, i = 1,…,m x = (x 1,…,x n ) is the n-dimensional vector of decision variables f (x) is the objective function g i (x) are the constraint functions b i are fixed known constants General NLP

4. Example 1 Max f ( x ) = 3 x 1 + 2 x 2 4 s.t. x 1 + x 2  1, x 1  0, x 2 unrestricted 2 Examples 2 and 3 can be reformulated as LPs Example 2 Max f ( x ) = e c 1 x 1 e c 2 x 2 … e c n x n s.t. Ax = b, x  0 n Example 3Min  j =1 f j ( x j ) s.t. Ax = b, x  0 where each f j ( x j ) is of the form Problems with “decreasing efficiencies” fj(xj)fj(xj) xjxj Examples of NLPs

5. Max f ( x 1, x 2 ) = x 1 x 2 s.t.4 x 1 + x 2  8 x 1  0, x 2  0 2 8 f(x) = 2 f(x) = 1 x2x2 Optimal solution will lie on the line g(x) = 4x 1 + x 2 – 8 = 0. x1x1 NLP Graphical Solution Method

6. Solution is not a vertex of feasible region. For this particular problem the solution is on the boundary of the feasible region. This is not always the case. In a more general case,  f ( x 1, x 2 ) =  g ( x 1, x 2 ) with   0. ( In this case,  = 1.) Gradient of f ( x ) =  f ( x 1, x 2 )  (  f /  x 1,  f /  x 2 ) T This gives  f /  x 1 = x 2,  f /  x 2 = x 1 and  g /  x 1 = 4,  g /  x 2 = 1 At optimality we have  f ( x 1, x 2 ) =  g ( x 1, x 2 ) or x 1 * = 1 and x 2 * = 4 Solution Characteristics

7. f(x)f(x) x local min global max stationary point local min local max Let S   n be the set of feasible solutions to an NLP. Definition: A global minimum is any x 0  S such than f (x 0 )  f (x) for all feasible x not equal to x 0. Nonconvex Function

8. At (1, 0),  f ( x 1, x 2 ) =  1  g 1 ( x 1, x 2 ) +  2  g 1 ( x 1, x 2 ) or (0, 6) =  1 (1, 0) +  2 (0, 1),  1  0,  2  0 so  1 = 0 and  2 = 6 If g 1 = x 1  0 and g 2 = x 2  0, what is the optimum ? Function with Unique Global Minimum at x = (1, –3)

9. Min { f (x)= sin(x) : 0  x  5  } Function with Multiple Maxima and Minima

10. Constrained Function with Unique Global Maximum and Unique Global Minimum

11. Convex function:If you draw a straight line between any two points on f (x) the line will be above or on f (x). Concave function: If f (x) is convex than – f (x) is concave. Linear functions are both convex and concave. Convexity d 2 f (x) dx2dx2 ≥ 0 for all x Convexity condition for univariate f : x1x1 x2x2 f (x)

12. Definition of Convexity Let x 1 and x 2 be two points (vectors) in S   n. A function f (x) is convex if and only if f ( x 1 + (1– )x 2 ) ≤ f (x 1 ) + (1– )f (x 2 ) for all 0 < < 1. It is strictly convex if the inequality sign ≤ is replaced with the sign <. 1-dimensional example

13. f(x)f(x) x Nonconvex -- Nonconave Function x1x1 x2x2

14. d 2 f dxdx 1 2 d 2 f dxdx 1 dxdx 2... d 2 f dx 1 dxdx n d 2 f dxdx 2 dxdx 1 d 2 f dxdx n dxdx 1... d 2 f dxdx n 2 Hessian of f at x :  2 f ( x ) =......... A positively weighted sum of convex functions is convex: If f k ( x ) is convex for k =1,…, m and  1,…,  m  0, then f ( x ) =  k f k ( x ) is convex. m k =1 Theoretical Result for Convex Functions Used to determine convexity.

15. Determining Convexity One-Dimensional Functions: A function f ( x )  C 1 is convex if and only if it is underestimated by linear extrapolation; i.e., f ( x 2 ) ≥ f ( x 1 ) + (d f ( x 1 )/d x )( x 2 – x 1 ) for all x 1 and x 2. A function f ( x )  C 2 is convex if and only if its second derivative is nonnegative. d 2 f ( x )/d x 2 ≥ 0 for all x If the inequality is strict (>), then f ( x ) is strictly convex. x 1 x 2 f(x)f(x)

16. Multiple Dimensional Functions Definition: The Hessian matrix H(x) associated with f (x) is the n  n symmetric matrix of second partial derivatives of f (x) with respect to the components of x. Example: f (x) = 3(x 1 ) 2 + 4(x 2 ) 3 – 5x 1 x 2 + 4x 1 When f (x) is quadratic, H(x) has only constant terms; when f (x) is linear, H(x) does not exist. f ( x ) is convex if only if f ( x 2 ) ≥ f ( x 1 ) +  T f ( x 1 )( x 2 – x 1 ) for all x 1 and x 2.

17. Properties of the Hessian H ( x ) is positive definite if and only if x T Hx > 0 for all x  0. H ( x ) is positive semi-definite if and only if x T Hx ≥ 0 for all x and there exists and x  0 such that x T Hx = 0. H ( x ) is indefinite if and only if x T Hx > 0 for some x, and x T Hx < 0 for some other x. How can we use Hessian to determine whether or not f ( x ) is convex?

18. Multiple Dimensional Functions and Convexity f ( x ) is strictly convex (or just convex) if its associated Hessian matrix H ( x ) is positive definite (semi-definite) for all x. f ( x ) is neither convex nor concave if its associated Hessian matrix H ( x ) is indefinite The terms negative definite and negative-semi- definite are also appropriate for the Hessian and provide symmetric results for concave functions. Recall that a function f ( x ) is concave if – f ( x ) is convex.

19. Testing for Definiteness Definition: The i th leading principal submatrix of H is the matrix formed taking the intersection of its first i rows and i columns. Let H i be the value of the corresponding determinant: Let Hessian, H =, where h ij =  2 f (x)/  x i  x j

20. Rules for Definiteness H is positive definite if and only if the determinants of all the leading principal submatrices are positive; i.e., H i > 0 for i = 1,…, n. H is negative definite if and only if H 1 < 0 and the remaining leading principal determinants alternate in sign: H 2 > 0, H 3 0,... Positive-semidefinite and negative semi-definiteness require that all principal submatrices satisfy the above conditions for the particular case.

21. Quadratic Functions Example 1: f ( x ) = 3 x 1 x 2 + x 1 2 + 3x 2 2 so H 1 = 2 and H 2 = 12 – 9 = 3 Conclusion  f ( x ) is convex because H ( x ) is positive definite.

22. Quadratic Functions (cont’d) Example 2: f ( x ) = 24 x 1 x 2 + 9x 1 2 + 16x 2 2 so H 1 = 18 and H 2 = 576 – 576 = 0 Thus H is positive semi-definite (determinants of all submatrices are nonnegative) so f ( x ) is convex. Note, x T Hx = 2(3 x 1 + 4 x 2 ) 2 ≥ 0. For x 1 =  4, x 2 = 3, we get x T Hx = 0.

23. Nonquadratic Functions Example 3: f (x) = (x 2 – x 1 2 ) 2 + (1 – x 1 ) 2 Thus the Hessian depends on the point under consideration: At x = (1, 1), which is positive definite. At x = (0, 1), which is indefinite. Thus f(x) is not convex although it is strictly convex near (1, 1).

24. What You Should Know About Nonlinear Programming How to develop models with nonlinear functions. The definition of convexity. Rules for positive and negative definiteness How to identify a convex function. The difference between a local and global solution.