1. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 1 N-Grams CSC 9010: Special Topics. Natural Language Processing. Paula Matuszek, Mary-Angela Papalaskari Spring, 2005 Based on McCoy, http://www.cis.udel.edu/~mccoy/courses/cisc882.03f/lectures/lect5-ngrams.ppt/

2. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 2 Free Association Exercise I am going to say some phrases. Write down the next word or two that occur to you. –Microsoft announced a new security ____ –NHL commissioner cancels rest ____ –One Fish, ______ –Colorless green ideas ______ –Conjunction Junction, what’s __________ –Oh, say, can you see, by the dawn’s ______ –After I finished my homework I went _____.

3. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 3 Human Word Prediction Clearly, at least some of us have the ability to predict future words in an utterance. How? –Domain knowledge –Syntactic knowledge –Lexical knowledge

4. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 4 Claim A useful part of the knowledge needed to allow Word Prediction can be captured using simple statistical techniques In particular, we'll rely on the notion of the probability of a sequence (a phrase, a sentence)

5. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 5 Applications Why do we want to predict a word, given some preceding words? –Rank the likelihood of sequences containing various alternative hypotheses, e.g. for automated speech recognition, OCRing. Theatre owners say popcorn/unicorn sales have doubled... –Assess the likelihood/goodness of a sentence, e.g. for text generation or machine translation Como mucho pescado.  At the most fished.

6. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 6 Real Word Spelling Errors They are leaving in about fifteen minuets to go to her house. The study was conducted mainly be John Black. The design an construction of the system will take more than a year. Hopefully, all with continue smoothly in my absence. Can they lave him my messages? I need to notified the bank of…. He is trying to fine out. Example from Dorr, http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/~bonnie/courses/cmsc723-04/lecture-notes/Lecture5.ppt

7. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 7 Language Modeling Fundamental tool in NLP Main idea: –Some words are more likely than others to follow each other –You can predict fairly accurately that likelihood. In other words, you can build a language model Adapted from Hearst, http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/courses/is290-2/f04/lectures/lecture4.ppt

8. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 8 N-Grams N-Grams are sequences of tokens. The N stands for how many terms are used –Unigram: 1 term –Bigram: 2 terms –Trigrams: 3 terms You can use different kinds of tokens –Character based n-grams –Word-based n-grams –POS-based n-grams N-Grams give us some idea of the context around the token we are looking at. Adapted from Hearst, http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/courses/is290-2/f04/lectures/lecture4.ppt

9. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 9 N-Gram Models of Language A language model is a model that lets us compute the probability, or likelihood, of a sentence S, P(S). N-Gram models use the previous N-1 words in a sequence to predict the next word –unigrams, bigrams, trigrams,… How do we construct or train these language models? –Count frequencies in very large corpora –Determine probabilities using Markov models, similar to POS tagging.

10. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 10 Counting Words in Corpora What is a word? –e.g., are cat and cats the same word? –September and Sept? –zero and oh? –Is _ a word? * ? ‘(‘ ? –How many words are there in don’t ? Gonna ? –In Japanese and Chinese text -- how do we identify a word?

11. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 11 Terminology Sentence: unit of written language Utterance: unit of spoken language Word Form: the inflected form that appears in the corpus Lemma: an abstract form, shared by word forms having the same stem, part of speech, and word sense Types: number of distinct words in a corpus (vocabulary size) Tokens: total number of words

12. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 12 Simple N-Grams Assume a language has V word types in its lexicon, how likely is word x to follow word y? –Simplest model of word probability: 1/ V –Alternative 1: estimate likelihood of x occurring in new text based on its general frequency of occurrence estimated from a corpus (unigram probability) popcorn is more likely to occur than unicorn –Alternative 2: condition the likelihood of x occurring in the context of previous words (bigrams, trigrams,…) mythical unicorn is more likely than mythical popcorn

13. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 13 Computing the Probability of a Word Sequence Compute the product of component conditional probabilities? –P(the mythical unicorn) = P(the) P(mythical|the) P(unicorn|the mythical) The longer the sequence, the less likely we are to find it in a training corpus P(Most biologists and folklore specialists believe that in fact the mythical unicorn horns derived from the narwhal) Solution: approximate using n-grams

14. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 14 Bigram Model Approximate by –P(unicorn|the mythical) by P(unicorn|mythical) Markov assumption: the probability of a word depends only on the probability of a limited history Generalization: the probability of a word depends only on the probability of the n previous words –Trigrams, 4-grams, … –The higher n is, the more data needed to train –The higher n is, the sparser the matrix. Leads us to backoff models

15. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 15 For N-gram models –  –P(w n-1,w n ) = P(w n | w n-1 ) P(w n-1 ) –By the Chain Rule we can decompose a joint probability, e.g. P(w 1,w 2,w 3 )Chain Rule P(w 1,w 2,...,w n ) = P(w 1 |w 2,w 3,...,w n ) P(w 2 |w 3,...,w n ) … P(w n- 1 |w n ) P(w n ) For bigrams then, the probability of a sequence is just the product of the conditional probabilities of its bigrams P(the,mythical,unicorn) = P(unicorn|mythical) P(mythical|the) P(the| ) Using N-Grams

16. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 16 A Simple Example –P(I want to eat Chinese food) = P(I | ) * P(want | I) P(to | want) *P(eat | to) P(Chinese | eat) *P(food | Chinese)

17. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 17 Counts from the Berkeley Restaurant Project Nth term N-1 term

18. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 18 BeRP Bigram Table Nth term N-1 term

19. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 19 A Simple Example –P(I want to eat Chinese food) = P(I | ) * P(want | I) P(to | want) *P(eat | to) P(Chinese | eat) *P(food | Chinese).25*.32*.65*.26*.02*.56 =.00015

20. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 20 P(I want to eat British food) = P(I| ) P(want|I) P(to|want) P(eat|to) P(British|eat) P(food|British) =.25*.32*.65*.26*.001*.60 =.000080 vs. I want to eat Chinese food =.00015 Probabilities seem to capture ``syntactic'' facts, ``world knowledge'' –eat is often followed by an NP –British food is not too popular So What?

21. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 21 What do we learn about the language? What's being captured with... –P(want | I) =.32 –P(to | want) =.65 –P(eat | to) =.26 –P(food | Chinese) =.56 –P(lunch | eat) =.055

22. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 22 What About These? What about... –P(I | I) =.0023 –P(I | want) =.0025 –P(I | food) =.013 BeRP is a testbed for speech recognition. We are getting: –P(I | I) =.0023 I I I I want –P(I | want) =.0025 I want I want –P(I | food) =.013 the kind of food I want is... In other words, our corpus includes disfluencies. Bad choice if we wanted to process text!

23. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 23 Approximating Shakespeare As we increase the value of N, the accuracy of the n- gram model increases, since choice of next word becomes increasingly constrained Generating sentences with random unigrams... –Every enter now severally so, let –Hill he late speaks; or! a more to leg less first you enter With bigrams... –What means, sir. I confess she? then all sorts, he is trim, captain. –Why dost stand forth thy canopy, forsooth; he is this palpable hit the King Henry.

24. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 24 Trigrams –Sweet prince, Falstaff shall die. –This shall forbid it should be branded, if renown made it empty. Quadrigrams –What! I will go seek the traitor Gloucester. –Will you not tell me who I am?

25. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 25 There are 884,647 tokens, with 29,066 word form types, in about a one million word Shakespeare corpus Shakespeare produced 300,000 bigram types out of 844 million possible bigrams: so, 99.96% of the possible bigrams were never seen (have zero entries in the table) Quadrigrams worse: What's coming out looks like Shakespeare because it is Shakespeare

26. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 26 N-Gram Training Sensitivity If we repeated the Shakespeare experiment but trained our n-grams on a Wall Street Journal corpus, what would we get? This has major implications for corpus selection or design

27. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 27 Some Useful Empirical Observations A few events occur with high frequency Many events occur with low frequency You can quickly collect statistics on the high frequency events You might have to wait an arbitrarily long time to get valid statistics on low frequency events Some of the zeroes in the table are really zeros But others are simply low frequency events you haven't seen yet. How to address?

28. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 28 Zipf’s Law George Kingsley Zipf (1902-1950) noted that for many frequency distributions, the n-th largest frequency is proportional to a negative power of the rank order n. Let t range over the set of unique events. Let f(t) be the frequency of t and let r(t) be its rank. Then:  t r(t)  c * f(t) -b for some constants b and c. Applies to a surprising range of things. Including frequencies in corpora

29. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 29 Smoothing Techniques Every n-gram training matrix is sparse, even for very large corpora (Zipf’s law)Zipf’s law Solution: estimate the likelihood of unseen n-grams Problems: how do you adjust the rest of the corpus to accommodate these ‘phantom’ n-grams? Methods to handle this are called smoothing.

30. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 30 Smoothing is like Robin Hood: Steal from the rich and give to the poor (in probability mass) From Snow, http://www.stanford.edu/class/linguist236/lec11.ppt

31. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 31 For unigrams: –Add 1 to every word (type) count –Normalize by N (tokens) /(N (tokens) +V (types)) –Smoothed count (adjusted for additions to N) is –Normalize by N to get the new unigram probability: For bigrams: –Add 1 to every bigram c(w n-1 w n ) + 1 –Incr unigram count by vocabulary size c(w n-1 ) + V Add-one Smoothing

32. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 32 And “Take from the “Rich” –Discount: ratio of new counts to old (e.g. add-one smoothing changes the BeRP bigram (to|want) from 786 to 331 (d c =.42) and p(to|want) from.65 to.28) –But this changes counts drastically: too much weight given to unseen n-grams in practice, unsmoothed bigrams often work better!

33. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 33 A zero n-gram is just an n-gram you haven’t seen yet…but every n-gram in the corpus was unseen once…so... –How many times did we see an n-gram for the first time? Once for each n-gram type (T) –Est. total probability of unseen bigrams as –View training corpus as series of events, one for each token (N) and one for each new type (T) We can divide the probability mass equally among unseen bigrams….or we can condition the probability of an unseen bigram on the first word of the bigram Discount values for Witten-Bell are much more reasonable than Add-One Witten-Bell Discounting

34. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 34 Backoff methods For e.g. a trigram model –Compute unigram, bigram and trigram probabilities –In use: Where trigram unavailable back off to bigram if available, o.w. unigram probability E.g An omnivorous unicorn

35. CSC 9010: Special Topics, Natural Language Processing. Spring, 2005. Matuszek & Papalaskari 35 Summary N-gram probabilities can be used to estimate the likelihood –Of a word occurring in a context (N-1) –Of a sentence occurring at all Smoothing techniques deal with problems of unseen words in a corpus N-grams are useful in a wide variety of NLP tasks