1. Page 1 Mutual Exclusion* Distributed Systems *referred to slides by Prof. Paul Krzyzanowski at Rutgers University and Prof. Mary Ellen Weisskopf at University of Alabama in Huntsville

2. Page 2 Mutual Exclusion? A condition in which there is a set of processes, only one of which is able to access a given resource or perform a given function at any time

3. Page 3 Centralized Systems Mutual exclusion via: –Test & set –Semaphores –Messages –Monitors

4. Page 4 Distributed Mutual Exclusion Assume there is agreement on how a resource is identified –Pass identifier with requests Create an algorithm to allow a process to obtain exclusive access to a resource

5. Page 5 Distributed Mutual Exclusion Centralized Algorithm Token Ring Algorithm Distributed Algorithm Decentralized Algorithm

6. Page 6 Centralized algorithm Mimic single processor system One process elected as coordinator P C request(R) grant(R) 1. Request resource 2. Wait for response 3. Receive grant 4. access resource 5. Release resource release(R)

7. Page 7 Centralized algorithm If another process claimed resource: –Coordinator does not reply until release –Maintain queue Service requests in FIFO order P0P0 C request(R) grant(R) release(R) P1P1 P2P2 request(R) Queue P1P1 request(R) P2P2 grant(R)

8. Page 8 Centralized algorithm Benefits Fair –All requests processed in order Easy to implement, understand, verify Problems Process cannot distinguish being blocked from a dead coordinator Centralized server can be a bottleneck

9. Page 9 Token Ring algorithm Assume known group of processes –Some ordering can be imposed on group –Construct logical ring in software –Process communicates with neighbor P0P0 P1P1 P2P2 P3P3 P4P4 P5P5

10. Page 10 Token Ring algorithm Initialization –Process 0 gets token for resource R Token circulates around ring –From P i to P (i+1) mod N When process acquires token –Checks to see if it needs to enter critical section –If no, send token to neighbor –If yes, access resource Hold token until done P0P0 P1P1 P2P2 P3P3 P4P4 P5P5 token(R)

11. Page 11 Token Ring algorithm Only one process at a time has token –Mutual exclusion guaranteed Order well-defined –Starvation cannot occur If token is lost (e.g. process died) –It will have to be regenerated Does not guarantee FIFO order

12. Page 12 Ricart & Agrawala algorithm Distributed algorithm using reliable multicast and logical clocks Process wants to enter critical section: –Compose message containing: Identifier (machine ID, process ID) Name of resource Timestamp (totally-ordered Lamport) –Send request to all processes in group –Wait until everyone gives permission –Enter critical section / use resource

13. Page 13 Ricart & Agrawala algorithm When process receives request: –If receiver not interested: Send OK to sender –If receiver is in critical section Do not reply; add request to queue –If receiver just sent a request as well: Compare timestamps: received & sent messages Earliest wins If receiver is loser, send OK If receiver is winner, do not reply, queue When done with critical section –Send OK to all queued requests

14. Page 14 Ricart & Agrawala algorithm N points of failure A lot of messaging traffic Demonstrates that a fully distributed algorithm is possible

15. Page 15 Lamport’s Mutual Exclusion Each process maintains request queue –Contains mutual exclusion requests Requesting critical section: –Process P i sends request(i, T i ) to all nodes –Places request on its own queue –When a process P j receives a request, it returns a timestamped ack Lamport time

16. Page 16 Lamport’s Mutual Exclusion Entering critical section (accessing resource) : –P i received a message (ack or release) from every other process with a timestamp larger than T i –P i ’s request has the earliest timestamp in its queue Difference from Ricart-Agrawala: –Everyone responds … always - no hold-back –Process decides to go based on whether its request is the earliest in its queue

17. Page 17 Lamport’s Mutual Exclusion Releasing critical section: –Remove request from its own queue –Send a timestamped release message –When a process receives a release message Removes request for that process from its queue This may cause its own entry have the earliest timestamp in the queue, enabling it to access the critical section

18. Characteristics of Decentralized Algorithms l No machine has complete information about the system state l Machines make decisions based only on local information l Failure of one machine does not ruin the algorithm l Three is no implicit assumption that a global clock exists

19. Page 19 Decentralized Algorithm Based on the Distributed Hash Table (DHT) system structure previously introduced –Peer-to-peer –Object names are hashed to find the successor node that will store them Here, we assume that n replicas of each object are stored

20. Page 20 Placing the Replicas The resource is known by a unique name: rname –Replicas: rname-0, rname-I, …, rname-(n-1) –rname-i is stored at succ(rname-i), where names and site names are hashed as before –If a process knows the name of the resource it wishes to access, it also can generate the hash keys that are used to locate all the replicas

21. Page 21 The Decentralized Algorithm Every replica has a coordinator that controls access to it (the coordinator is the node that stores it) For a process to use the resource it must receive permission from m > n/2 coordinators This guarantees exclusive access as long as a coordinator only grants access to one process at a time

22. Page 22 The Decentralized Algorithm The coordinator notifies the requester when it has been denied access as well as when it is granted –Requester must “count the votes”, and decide whether or not overall permission has been granted or denied If a process (requester) gets fewer than m votes it will wait for a random time and then ask again

23. Page 23 Analysis If a resource is in high demand, multiple requests will be generated It’s possible that processes will wait a long time to get permission Deadlock? Resource usage drops

24. Page 24 Analysis More robust than the central coordinator approach and the distributed approaches. If one coordinator goes down others are available. –If a coordinator fails and resets then it will not remember having granted access to one requestor, and may then give access to another. According to the authors, it is highly unlikely that this will lead to a violation of mutual exclusion. (See the text for a probabilistic argument.)