1. Gentile’s Perspectives on Skill Acquisition
Revised 2004

2. Levels of Movement Analysis
Action
Movement
Neuromotor processes

3. Action
“Action is the change in state from these initial to final conditions” (Gentile, 1987, 95).
“Action is the observable outcome resulting from the performer’s purposeful interaction with the environment” (Gentile, 2000, 113).

4. “Action is defined by the end-state or outcome resulting from performer-environment interaction and does not implicate how that end is achieved” (Gentile, 2000, 114).

5. Movement
“Movement, the means by which action is realized, is the second level on which adaptive behavior can be analyzed” (Gentile, 1987, 96).

6. Neuromotor processes
“These are the organizational mechanisms within the central nervous system (CNS) that constrain and sequence movement” (Gentile, 1987, 96).

7. Poulton (1957) created a dichotomy of motor tasks with open and closed skill categories. In Poulton’s categories the classification of skills into categories was based on prediction.

8. OPEN // CLOSED Temporal and Spatial Environment is not predictable
Spatial Only
Environment is predictable

9. Knapp viewed open and closed skills on a continuum, where the perceptual and habitual nature of tasks determine open and closed skills respectively.

10. Knapp’s Continuum
Closed Open
Habitual Perceptual

12. Think about??????
Why does Gentile refer to closed skills as self-paced?
Why does Gentile refer to open skills as externally paced?
What happens to movement patterns late in practice in open and closed skills?
What might some of the implications be for feedback in open and closed skills?
How does this apply to what you do?

13. Environmental Constraints
No Intertrial
Variability
Intertrial
Variability
Shooting a foul
shot
Putting in golf
Closed
Hitting off a
pitching machine
Fielding a ground
ball
Open

14. From:
Gentile, A.M. (2000).

15. Anatomical Constraints
Body Transport
Body Stability
No LTM
LTM
No LTM
LTM

16. From: Gentile, A.M. (2000).

17. Gentile’s (1987) Taxonomy CLOSED Easy OPEN Complex Body Stability
Body Transport
No LTM
LTM
No LTM
LTM
No Intertrial
Variability
CLOSED
Easy
Intertrial Variability
No Intertrial
Variability
OPEN
Intertrial Variability
Complex

25. What does Gentile mean by “…we live in the immediate past” (Gentile, 2000, p. 120)?
What is meant by movement equivalence and motor equivalence?
What is meant by movement typology?
Describe the time delays inherent in motor behavior.

26. How would you use the taxonomy in your practice?
Describe what Gentile means by predictive processes.
“…predictive processes provide the bridge to future events enabling skilled performance” (Gentile, 2000, p. 121).
How do these predictive processes relate to the “dead space”? How does the dead space relate to information processing?
How would you use the taxonomy in your practice?

27. References
Brady, F. (1996). Anticipation of coincidence, gender, and sports classification. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 82,
Cooper, L. K., & Rothstein, A. L. (1982). Video replay and the learning skills in open and closed environments. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 52,
Darling, W. G., & Cooke, J. D. (1987). Changes in the variability of movement trajectories with practice. Journal of Motor Behavior, 19, 3.
Eidson, T. A., & Stadulis, R. E. (1991). Effects of variability of practice on the transfer and performance of open and closed skills. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 8,
Gentile, A. M. (1972). A working model of skill acquisition with application to teaching. Quest, 17, 3-23.

28. References
Gentile, A.M. (1987) Skill acquisition: Action, movement, and neuromotor processes. In J.H. Carr, R.B. Shepherd, J. Gordon, A.M. Gentile, & J.M. Held, Movement Science. Foundations for Physical Therapy in Rehabilitation. MD: Aspen Publishers.
Hautala, R. M., Conn, J. H. (1993). A test of Magill’s closed to open continuum for skill development. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 77,
Highlen, P., & Bennett, B. (1983). Elite divers and wrestlers: A comparison between open- and closed-skill athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5,
Jarus, T., Wughalter, E. H., & Gianutsos, J. (1997). Effects of contextual interference and conditions of movement task on acquisition, retention, and transfer of motor skills by women. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84,

29. References
Mc Loed, B. (1983). Field dependence as a factor in sports withpreponderance of open or closed skills. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 60,
Mount, J. (1996). Effect of practice of a throwing skill in one body position on performance of the skill in an alternate
position. Perceptual and Motor Skills, ,
Poulton, E. G. (1957). Range effects in experiments on people. American Journal of Psychology, 88, 3-32.
Riach, C. L., & Hayes, K. C. (1990). Anticipatory postural control in children. Journal of Motor Behavior, 22,

30. References
Rothstein, A., & Wughalter, E. H. (1987). Basic stuff series 1: Motor Learning. Reston, VA: AAHPERD.
Sherwood, D. E., & Weeks, D. L. (1994). A comparison of knowledge of results scheduling methods for promoting motor skill acquisition and retention. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 65,
Wrisberg, C. A., & Anshel, M. H. (1993). A field test of the activity set hypothesis for warm-up decrement in an open skill. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, ,
Yazdy. O. (1998). Speed of information in sport: closed vs open
skills. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 19,