1. Oceanography

2. Oceanography
Oceanography – the application of all science to understanding the phenomena of the ocean
Oceanography involves chemistry, physics, geology, biology in addition to the study of resources and maritime law and policy

3. Oceanographic fields or careers
Chemical Oceanography – the study of seawater, its composition, and the chemical reactions it undergoes
Biological Oceanography - the study of living organisms and how they interact with the ocean. This is very similar to marine biology
Physical Oceanography – study of the physical aspects of the ocean, including motion, temperature, density and salinity

4. Marine Geology – study of the rock and sediment layers on the ocean floor and how the continents drift and oceans form
Ocean Engineering – concerned with how to utilize the ocean for man’s benefit (collecting resources, generation of energy, etc.), or how to overcome the challenges the ocean creates
Marine Policy – the application of law or political science to the oceans

5. Characteristics of the Ocean
Are economically and recreationally important
Almost all international trade moves by shipping on the oceans
Climate and weather are strongly influenced by the ocean
Is the principal source of the water that goes into the water cycle (rain, surface water, evaporation, etc.)
Important source of food

6. Importance (cont.)
Source of many resources – phosphates, tin, manganese, sand, oil deposits and even the water itself
May someday be a major source of energy
Control of oceans is a major aspect of warfare

7. In the US, 50% of the population lives within 50 miles of an ocean
The oceans and other sources of water cover 72% of the Earth’s surface
Less than 35% of the total land is found below the equator – therefore the Southern Hemisphere is over 65% of the Earths’ oceans

8. The oceans have a volume of 318 million cubic miles
Have an average depth of 2.3 miles
The oceans’ deepest depth is deeper than the Earth’s highest height
Mt. Everest – ,848 meters (29,029 feet)
Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench – , 035 meters (36,204 feet)

9. Historical Oceanography

11. Voyaging – traveling on the oceans for a specific purpose seeking
Earliest “oceanography” was not out of curiosity, but out of practical purposes
Voyaging – traveling on the oceans for a specific purpose seeking
New lands to claim and / or conquer
Trade routes

12. The Phoenicians First regular ocean traders – around 1200 B.C.
Sailed the Mediterranean, north to the British Islands, and south to the west coast of Africa
This was quite an accomplishment due to the simple, primitive ships they used

13. The Greeks Began to explore the open seas around 900 – 700 B.C
Noticed a current flowing out of the Mediterranean Sea – through the Straits of Gibraltar

14. Mediterranean Sea
Straits of Gibraltar
Greece

15. Straits of Gibraltar
Satellite imagery where you can actually see the current flowing into the Mediterranean Sea

16. They believed that only rivers had currents, so the ocean must be one immense river
okeanos – Greek word for river
oceanus – Latin variant – origin of the word “Ocean”

17. Neither the Greeks nor the Phoenicians ever ventured far from land

18. Cartographer – chart maker
Slowly over time, sailors began to keep detailed charts showing landmarks, harbors, currents, times between points
Cartographer – chart maker
Earliest were probably Mediterranean traders
First chart drawn around 800 B.C.
Chart is to water, as map is to land

19. Portuguese Nautical Chart, c.1504

20. Modern Nautical Chart

21. Library of Alexandria Founded in 3rd Century A.D.
In Alexandria, Egypt
By Alexander the Great
Considered by many to be the worlds first University
Site where students and scholars from all over the region studied and researched

22. Much of the knowledge gained was kept there – both scientific knowledge and extensive charts

23. Calculated the circumference of the Earth
Eratosthenes – Greek astronomer, philosopher, poet and 2nd Librarian of Alexandria
Calculated the circumference of the Earth
This led to celestial navigation (using stars)
Gave rise to the idea of latitude and longitude
Was improved upon by Ptolemy (East / West / North / South, degrees and minutes)

24. 400 A.D. – the library was burned under Roman rule
Virtually all the charts and records were lost
This began a period known as the Dark Ages, which lasted nearly 1000 years

25. The Vikings Flourished during the Dark Ages
Established colonies in Iceland and Greenland
Evidence suggests they may have had settlements in North America (1000 A.D.)
Were masterful navigators, sailors and ship builders

26. Polynesians
Sailed the South Pacific
Considered to be master sailors

27. One theory is that the South Pacific Islands (Polynesia) were actually colonized by Native South Americans
This theory was tested in 1947 by Norwegian explorer and writer Thor Heyerdahl.
Sailed from South America to Polynesia in a hand built reed craft – the Kon Tiki

29. Chinese Made and used practical compass Widely used by 1000 AD
This allowed for navigation without using the stars

30. Improved sail design
Used ships with multiple masts
Used moveable sails and rudders
Developed the watertight bulkhead

31. Prince Henry the Navigator
Portuguese –
Was a patron of sailing – was not himself a sailor
Sponsored voyages and financed shipbuilding
Led to exploration of Coast of Africa

32. Christopher Columbus 1492 expedition “Discovered” new world
Navigated using “dead reckoning”, his attempts at celestial navigation were flawed and inaccurate
Dead reckoning - determining position by measuring time and speed (to calculate distance traveled) and direction (using a compass)

33. Dead Reckoning

34. Ferdinand Magellan Was first to circumnavigate the globe – 1519 – 1522
First to sail the Pacific from the Atlantic (via the Strait of Magellan)
Gave the Pacific ocean it name - Mar Pacifico (Pacific Ocean) because of its apparent stillness
Magellan didn’t complete the journey – was killed in the Philippines

35. Captain James Cook
Explored the pacific, Australia, New Zealand, discovered Hawaii, circumnavigated Antarctica ( )

36. Benjamin Franklin
Another non-sailor who made a tremendous contribution
While postmaster in the US, heard tales of mail reaching US took longer than mail being delivered to Europe
Took readings of water temperature on various trans-Atlantic crossings
Identified, mapped (and even named) the Gulf Stream

39. James Clark Ross British Explorer
Explored Arctic as part of expedition to reach North Pole (with his uncle Sir John Ross and Admiral Perry)
Led Expeditions exploring South Pole (1839 & 1843)
Ross ice shelf, Ross seal and RRS James Clark Ross (British Arctic Survey Ship) named for him

40. HMS Challenger
Considered to be the first true oceanographic expedition – set sail for purely research purposes
Set out from England in 1872, circled the globe for 4 years
Had a crew of 243, and a science party of 6 (Physicists, chemists, and biologists)
Collaborated with expert navigators to map the sea

41. Observation were made at 362 “stations”
water depth
temperature at various depths
weather conditions
water conditions at surface and sometimes at depth
seafloor samples
water samples
samples of plant and animal life at various depths

43. Establishment of Research Facilities and Organizations
1888 – Marine Biological Laboratory - Wood’s Hole, MA
1906 – Musee’ Oceanographique – Monaco
1912 – Scripps Institution of Oceanography – La Jolla, CA
1930 – Wood’s Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI)
1970 – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) founded by US Gov.