1. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REFLECTION FOR ACTION Canadian Edition EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REFLECTION FOR ACTION Canadian Edition O’Donnell, D’Amico, Schmid, Reeve, Smith

2. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition CHAPTER 4 Individual Differences Among Learners

3. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Chapter 4 Individual Differences Among Learners Themes of the chapterThemes of the chapter –Conceptualizations of intelligence have changed over –Identifying and accommodating students with special needs –Poverty affects children in schools

4. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Guiding Questions How was intelligence understood initially, and how have views of intelligence changed over time?How was intelligence understood initially, and how have views of intelligence changed over time? How is intelligence measured, and how is it related to achievementHow is intelligence measured, and how is it related to achievement What happens when students are grouped by ability?What happens when students are grouped by ability?(continued)

5. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Guiding Questions (continued) How does talent develop?How does talent develop? In general, how do schools identify children with special needs?In general, how do schools identify children with special needs? How are learning disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder identified?How are learning disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder identified? How do differences in socioeconomic status and culture affect students’ success in school ?How do differences in socioeconomic status and culture affect students’ success in school ?

6. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Variability in the Classroom A teacher’s challenge is to acknowledge and celebrate the differences among children and work to maximize the growth in each childA teacher’s challenge is to acknowledge and celebrate the differences among children and work to maximize the growth in each child A teacher must also adhere to the mandates of the curriculumA teacher must also adhere to the mandates of the curriculum

7. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition History of Intelligence Galton (1869)Galton (1869) –Interested in the study of individual differences and in eugenics which was a political and scientific movement that argued for selective reproduction of individuals and immigration laws based on intelligence levels Binet (1905)Binet (1905) –Published (with Simon) the first set of intelligence scales to identify low-achieving students who might need help

8. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition History of Intelligence Binet (1916)Binet (1916) –Intelligence is judgment and adapting to one’s circumstances Stern with Terman (1920)Stern with Terman (1920) –Devised the intelligent quotient (IQ) –IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100 Goddard (1920)Goddard (1920) –Intelligence is an innate ability, or present at birth

9. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition History of Intelligence Spearman (1923)Spearman (1923) –Factor analyzed a large number of measures of mental ability and concluded that intelligence was one factor he called g (general) along with a variety of specific factors Thurstone (1957)Thurstone (1957) –Proposed a model of intelligence with seven primary mental abilities

10. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Thurstone’s Primary Mental AbilitiesThurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities – Verbal comprehension –Word fluency –Number facility –Spatial visualization –Associate memory –Perceptual speed –Reasoning History of Intelligence

11. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Cattell (1963)Cattell (1963) – – the ability to solve problems, figure out what to do when one is not sure what to do, and acquire new skills –Fluid intelligence – the ability to solve problems, figure out what to do when one is not sure what to do, and acquire new skills – – the use of acquired skills and knowledge such as reading and language skills –Crystallized intelligence – the use of acquired skills and knowledge such as reading and language skills History of Intelligence

12. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Controversies in Intelligence – a shorthand term for the debate over whether mental abilities are developed by the individual’s environment (nature) or inherited (nurture)Nature/nurture – a shorthand term for the debate over whether mental abilities are developed by the individual’s environment (nature) or inherited (nurture) – a movement that argued that intelligence is genetic, so governments should encourage reproduction of those with high intelligence and not those with lower intelligenceEugenics – a movement that argued that intelligence is genetic, so governments should encourage reproduction of those with high intelligence and not those with lower intelligence

13. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition More Recent Views of Intelligence Gardner’s (1983) theory of multiple intelligencesGardner’s (1983) theory of multiple intelligences Sternberg’s (1985) triarchic theory of intelligenceSternberg’s (1985) triarchic theory of intelligence Sternberg’s (1997) idea of successful intelligenceSternberg’s (1997) idea of successful intelligence

14. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence holds that intelligence has three main facets each of which is the top of a hierarchyTriarchic theory holds that intelligence has three main facets each of which is the top of a hierarchy –Analytical: ability to respond effectively to problems Metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge acquisition componentsMetacomponents, performance components, and knowledge acquisition components –Creative: ability to generate new ideas Novelty or insight and automaticity (ability to perform a task without having to think much about itNovelty or insight and automaticity (ability to perform a task without having to think much about it –Practical: ability to handle everyday problems and issues

15. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

16. Sternberg’s “Successful” Intelligence The ability to succeed in life, given one’s own goals, within one’s environmental contexts with four key elements for teachersThe ability to succeed in life, given one’s own goals, within one’s environmental contexts with four key elements for teachers –Teaching for memory learning –Teaching for analytical learning –Teaching for creative learning –Teaching for practical learning

17. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences(MI) –Logical-mathematical –Linguistic –Spatial –Musical –Bodily-kinesthetic –Naturalistic –Interpersonal –Intrapersonal

18. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Views of Intelligence – the belief that intelligence is genetically determined and not alterableEntity view – the belief that intelligence is genetically determined and not alterable – the belief that intelligence can be improved through effortIncremental view – the belief that intelligence can be improved through effort

19. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Your Turn If someone has an entity view of their own ability what does this mean for how hard her or she will work at tasks?If someone has an entity view of their own ability what does this mean for how hard her or she will work at tasks? What about those with an incremental view of their own abilities? How does this affect how hard they will work at tasks?What about those with an incremental view of their own abilities? How does this affect how hard they will work at tasks?

20. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition How Is Intelligence Measured? VerbalVerbal –Information –Similarities –Arithmetic –Vocabulary –Comprehension –Digit span PerformancePerformance –picture completion –Coding –Picture arrangement –Block design –Object assembly –Symbol search –Mazes Standardized IQ Test – WISC IV

21. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition How Is Intelligence Measured? Sequential ProcessingSequential Processing –Hand movements –Number recall –Word order Simultaneous ProcessingSimultaneous Processing –Magic window –face recognition –Gestalt closure –Triangles –Matrix analogies –Spatial memory –Photo series Standardized IQ Test – K-ABC II

22. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Issues in Intelligence Testing Test bias – systematic unfair treatment of a particular group of individualsTest bias – systematic unfair treatment of a particular group of individuals Test bias problems led to the development ofTest bias problems led to the development of –Culture-free tests: standardized tests that do not include items that might favor one culture over another (e.g., Ravens Progressive Matrices, 1995)

23. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Average IQ score is 100Average IQ score is 100 Standard Deviation is 15Standard Deviation is 15 68% of people have scores that fall within one standard deviation of the average68% of people have scores that fall within one standard deviation of the average Extreme scores are those that fall outside of 2 standard deviations from the mean (in positive and negative directions)Extreme scores are those that fall outside of 2 standard deviations from the mean (in positive and negative directions) Extremes of Intelligence

24. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Extremes of Intelligence: Normal Distribution of Scores

25. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Giftedness Difficult to identifyDifficult to identify Individuals typically have an IQ score that is two standard deviations above the average scoreIndividuals typically have an IQ score that is two standard deviations above the average score Teacher recommendations may be used in the identification processTeacher recommendations may be used in the identification process

26. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Talent Talent is the capacity to produce exceptional performance in a domainTalent is the capacity to produce exceptional performance in a domain There are three sources of desire to improve in a domainThere are three sources of desire to improve in a domain Enjoyment of activityEnjoyment of activity Internalization of the value of improving one’s skill for its own sakeInternalization of the value of improving one’s skill for its own sake External supportExternal support

27. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Deliberate Practice Deliberate practice is activity that is designed to improve one’s skills in a particular areaDeliberate practice is activity that is designed to improve one’s skills in a particular area Is thought to produce, a one-to-one correspondence between one’s effort and one’s gains in a skill or abilityIs thought to produce monotonic benefits, a one-to-one correspondence between one’s effort and one’s gains in a skill or ability Deliberate practice includes the following activities:Deliberate practice includes the following activities: –Hours of on-task skill refinement –Hours of self-reflection –Hours of coaching and feedback –Hours of observational learning

28. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Effort Becomes Talent Deliberate practice alters cognitive capacities allowing experts to store many classes of schemas such as a chess player having numerous plays from which to chooseDeliberate practice alters cognitive capacities allowing experts to store many classes of schemas such as a chess player having numerous plays from which to choose Deliberate practice changes bodily functions such as muscle patterns for piano players and increased heart and lung capacities for runnersDeliberate practice changes bodily functions such as muscle patterns for piano players and increased heart and lung capacities for runners

29. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Differences in Ability and Instruction Between-class ability grouping –Children are assigned to different classes based on measured ability Within-class ability grouping –Children are assigned to ability groups within a class Multi-age grouping – Classes include children of various ages

30. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Learners with Special Needs Learners with – those who have been identified as having needs that are significant enough to warrant special educational servicesLearners with special needs – those who have been identified as having needs that are significant enough to warrant special educational services – including students with special needs in the regular classroom and providing the necessary servicesInclusive education – including students with special needs in the regular classroom and providing the necessary services

31. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition The Law and Special Education The Canadian states that education is a right for every individual and every individual has the right to be educated to his or her potentialThe Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states that education is a right for every individual and every individual has the right to be educated to his or her potential governs the rights of individuals with disabilities in the United StatesIndividuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) governs the rights of individuals with disabilities in the United States

32. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition The Law and Special Education All provinces require that each child with special needs must have anAll provinces require that each child with special needs must have an individualized education plan (IEP) – –IEP: an educational and behavioural intervention plan for a student with special needs

33. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Identifying Children with Special Needs Prereferral processes – a team approach to giving a child assistance in his or her own class before being considered for special educationPrereferral processes – a team approach to giving a child assistance in his or her own class before being considered for special education Referrals – if a child’s problems persist after the prereferral interventions, he or she may be referred for special educationReferrals – if a child’s problems persist after the prereferral interventions, he or she may be referred for special education

34. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Inclusion Strategies for inclusion:Strategies for inclusion: –Establish a positive attitude –Analyze curriculum, rules, instruction, materials, and environment –Identify student characteristics (i.e., strengths and weaknesses) –Compare student characteristics with the learning environment

35. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Prevalence of Disabilities in North America PALS survey reported that 3% of Canadians aged 0 to 14 have disabilitiesPALS survey reported that 3% of Canadians aged 0 to 14 have disabilities 2007 study of information provided by North American school systems (Canada and United States) reported that 10-12% of school-aged population have disabilities2007 study of information provided by North American school systems (Canada and United States) reported that 10-12% of school-aged population have disabilities

36. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Most Prevalent Learning Needs 1.Learning disabilities 2.Attention deficit disorder 3.Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders 4.Students with limited English proficiency (LEP)

37. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Learning Disabilities Developmental speech and language disordersDevelopmental speech and language disorders –Articulation, expressive language, receptive language Academic skills disordersAcademic skills disorders –Reading, math, writing Other disabilitiesOther disabilities

38. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Attention Deficit Disorder A condition in which children experience persistent difficulties with attention span, impulse control, and sometimes hyperactivity disorderA condition in which children experience persistent difficulties with attention span, impulse control, and sometimes hyperactivity disorder –Becoming easily distracted by irrelevant sights and sounds –Failing to pay attention to details and making careless remarks –Rarely following instructions carefully and completely –Losing or forgetting things such as toys, pencils, books, tools needed for a task

39. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders A condition in which children or adults consistently display inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivenessA condition in which children or adults consistently display inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness –Feeling restless, often fidgeting with hands or feet, or squirming –Running, climbing, or leaving a seat in situations in which sitting or quiet behaviour is expected –Blurting out an answer before hearing the whole question –Having difficulty waiting in line or for a turn

40. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Autism Spectrum Disorder and Related Disorders AutismAutism –Impaired social responsiveness –Impaired communication –Stereotypic or ritualistic behaviour –Preoccupation with objects and narrow range of interests Related disorders include pervasive developmental disorder (PDD), autism spectrum disorderRelated disorders include pervasive developmental disorder (PDD), autism spectrum disorder

41. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Differences in Socioeconomic Status and Their Role in Learning Socioeconomic status may put children at risk for developmental and learning problemsSocioeconomic status may put children at risk for developmental and learning problems

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