1. Chapter 10 Properties of Solutions 17.1 Solution Composition 17.2 The Thermodynamics of Solution Formation (skip) 17.3 Factors Affecting Solubility 17.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions 17.5 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression 17.6 Osmotic Pressure 17.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 17.8 Colloids GAS SOLIDLIQUID Freezing Melting Sublimation Deposition Condensation Evaporation

2. Colligative Properties of Solutions For Colligative properties, the difference between a pure solvent and dilute solution depends only on the number of solute particles present and not on their chemical identity. Examples –Vapor Pressure Depression –Boiling Point Elevation –Melting Point Depression –Osmotic Pressure

3. Lowering of Vapor Pressure –Vapor Pressure of a solvent above a dilute solution is always less than the vapor pressure above the pure solvent. Elevation of Boiling Point –The boiling point of a solution of a non-volatile solute in a volatile solvent always exceeds the boiling point of a pure solvent Boiling liquid in equilibrium with its vapor at the external pressure. Boiling Point Vapor press = external pressure Normal boiling point Vap press. = 1 atm

4. Phase diagrams for pure water (red lines) and for an aqueous solution containing a nonvolatile solution (blue lines). Elevation of Boiling Point & Vapor Pressure Depression

5. Solution Composition Solution:A homogeneous mixture (mixed at level of atoms molecules or ions Solvent: Solute: The major component The minor component The solute and solvent can be any combination of solid (s), liquid (l), and gaseous (g) phases. Dissolution:Two (or more) substances mix at the level of individual atoms, molecules, or ions.

6. Solution Composition Mass percentage (weight percentage): mass percentage of the component = X 100% mass of component total mass of mixture Mole fraction: The amount of a given component (in moles) divided by the total amount (in moles) X 1 = n 1 /(n 1 + n 2 ) for a two component system X 2 = n 2 /(n 1 + n 2 ) = 1 – X 1 or X 1 +X 2 =1 Mass Fraction, Mole Fraction, Molality and Molarity

7. Molality m solute = moles solute per kilogram solvent = moles per kg or (mol kg -1 ) Molarity (biochemists pay attention) c solute = moles solute per volume solution = moles per liter of solution (mol L -1 )

8. Factors Affecting Solubility 1.Molecular Interactions –Review chapter 4 –Polar molecules, water soluble, hydrophilic (water loving) E.g., Vitamins B and C; water-soluble –Non-polar molecules, soluble in non-polar molecules, hydrophobic (water fearing) E.g., Vitamins A, D, K and E; fat-soluble

9. Factors Affecting Solubility of Gases 1.Structure Effects 2.Pressure Effects

10. Henry’s Law (for dilute solutions) The mole fraction of volatile solute is proportional to the vapor pressure of the solute. P = k H X k H = Henry’s Law constant, X = mole fraction. Increasing the partial pressure of a gas over a liquid increases the amount of gas disolved in the liquid. k H depends on temperature.

11. When the partial pressure of nitrogen over a sample of water at 19.4°C is 9.20 atm, the concentration of nitrogen in the water is 5.76 x 10 -3 mol L -1. Compute Henry’s law constant for nitrogen in water at this temperature.

12. When the partial pressure of nitrogen over a sample of water at 19.4°C is 9.20 atm, then the concentration of nitrogen in the water is 5.76 x 10 -3 mol L -1. Compute Henry’s law constant for nitrogen in water at this temperature.

14. Factors Affecting Solubility 1.Structure Effects 2.Pressure Effects 3.Temperature Effects for Aqueous Solutions The solubility of some solids as a function of temperature. The aqueous solubilities of most solids increase with increasing temperature, some decrease with temp. Endothermic – heat is absorbed by the system (think evaporation of water, or melting of ice) Exothermic – heat is evolved by the system (think fire, or freezing of water).

15. Factors Affecting Solubility 1.Structure Effects 2.Pressure Effects 3.Temperature Effects for Aqueous Solutions The solubility of some gases in water as a function of temperature at a constant pressure of 1 atm.

16. The greatest gas solubility for a gas in solution is predicted under what conditions? 1)low T, low P 2)low T, high P 3)high T, low P 4)high T, high P 5)solubility of gases does not depend upon temperature

17. The greatest gas solubility for a gas in solution is predicted under what conditions? 1)low T, low P 2)low T, high P 3)high T, low P 4)high T, high P 5)solubility of gases does not depend upon temperature

18. According to Henry's Law, the solubility of a gas in a liquid 1)depends on the polarity of the liquid 2)depends on the liquid's density 3)remains the same at all temperatures 4)increases as the gas pressure above the solution increases 5)decreases as the gas pressure above the solution increases

19. According to Henry's Law, the solubility of a gas in a liquid 1)depends on the polarity of the liquid 2)depends on the liquid's density 3)remains the same at all temperatures 4)increases as the gas pressure above the solution increases 5)decreases as the gas pressure above the solution increases

20. The Person Behind the Science Francois-Marie Raoult (1830-1901) Highlights –1886 Raoult's law, the partial pressure of a solvent vapor in equilibrium with a solution is proportional to the ratio of the number of solvent molecules to non- volatile solute molecules.Raoult's law –allows molecular weights to be determined, and provides the explanation for freezing point depression and boiling point elevation.freezing point depressionboiling point elevation Moments in a Life –Raoult was a prominent member of the group which created physical chemistry, including Arrhenius, Nernst, van t'Hoff, Planck. P soln = X solvent P° solvent For ideal solutions

21. Raoult’s Law, non-volatile solute Consider a non-volatile solute (component 2) dissolved in a volatile solvent (component 1). X 1 = the mole fraction of solvent P 1 =X 1 P ° 1 P ° 1 = the vapor pressure of pure component 1 Raoult’s Law

22. Raoult’s Law, volatile solute Volatile solute (component 1) Volatile solvent (component 2) P 1 = X 1 P ° 1 P tot = P 1 + P 2 P 2 = X 2 P ° 2

23. Vapor pressure for a solution of two volatile liquids. Negative deviation = solute-solvent attractions > solvent-solvent attractions Positive deviation = solute-solvent attractions < solvent-solvent attractions For non-ideal Solutions

25. Osmotic Pressure Fourth Colligative Property Important for transport of molecules across cell membranes, called semipermeable membranes Osmotic Pressure = Π Π = M RT ΠV = n RT Molarity (M) = moles/L or n/V PV = nRT

26. Osmotic Pressure The normal flow of solvent into the solution (osmosis) can be prevented by applying an external pressure to the solution. Osmotic Pressure useful for  Determining the Molar Mass of protein and other macromolecules  small concentrations cause large osmotic pressures  Can prevent transfer of all solute particles  Dialysis at the wall of most plant and animal cells

27. Dialysis: Representation of the functioning of an artificial kidney A cellophane (polymeric) tube acts as the semi- permeable membrane  Purifies blood by washing impurities (solutes) into the dialyzing solution.

28. A dilute aqueous solution of a non-dissociating compound contains 1.19 g of the compound per liter of solution and has an osmotic pressure of 0.0288 atm at a temperature of 37°C. Compute the molar mass of the compound.

29. A dilute aqueous solution of a non-dissociating compound contains 1.19 g of the compound per liter of solution and has an osmotic pressure of 0.0288 atm at a temperature of 37°C. Compute the molar mass of the compound

30. The Person Behind the Science J.H. van’t Hoff (1852-1901) Highlights –Discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions –Mathematical laws that closely resemble the laws describing the behavior of gases. –his work led to Arrhenius's theory of electrolytic dissociation or ionization –Studies in molecular structure laid the foundation of stereochemistry. Moments in a Life –1901 awarded first Noble Prize in Chemistry van’t Hoff Factor (i) ΔT = − i m K

31. Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions Elevation of Boiling Point ΔT b = m K b Where m = molality (Molality is moles of solute per kilogram of solvent) The Effect of Dissociation ΔT b = i m K b i = the number of particles released into the solution per formula unit of solute e.g., NaCl dissociates into i = 2 e.g., Na 2 SO 4 dissociates into i = 3 (2 Na + + 1 SO 4 -2 ) e.g., acetic acid (a weak acid and weak electrolyte) does not dissociate i = 1 also Depression of Freezing Point ΔT f = − m K f ΔT f = − i m K f

32. Which aqueous solution would be expected to have the highest boiling point? 1)0.100 m NaCl 2)0.100 m CaCl 2 3)0.080 m Fe(NO 3 ) 3 4)0.080 m Fe(NO 3 ) 2 5)0.080 m Co(SO 4 )

34. Which aqueous solution would be expected to have the highest boiling point? 1) 0.100 m NaCl ΔTb = (2)(0.100) K b = 0.200 K b 2) 0.100 m CaCl 2 ΔTb = (3)(0.100) K b = 0.300 K b 3) 0.080 m Fe(NO 3 ) 3 ΔTb = (4)(0.080) K b = 0.320 K b 4) 0.080 m Fe(NO 3 ) 2 ΔTb = (3)(0.080) K b = 0.240 K b 5) 0.080 m Co(SO 4 ) ΔTb = (2)(0.080) K b = 0.160 K b Elevation of Boiling Point The Effect of Dissociation ΔT b = i m K b

35. Colloids: Colloidal Dispersions Colloids are large particles dispersed in solution –1nm to 1000 nm in size –E.g., Globular proteins 500 nm Examples –Opal (water in solid SiO 2 ) –Aerosols (liquids in Gas) –Smoke (solids in Air) –Milk (fat droplets & solids in water) –Mayonnaise (water droplets in oil) –Paint (solid pigments in liquid) –Biological fluids (proteins & fats in water) Characteristics –Large particle size colloids: translucent, cloudy, milky) –Small particle size colloids: can be clear

36. Colloidal Dispersions –Tyndall Effect Light Scattering