1. Temperature, Thermal Expansion, and the Ideal Gas Law
Chapter opener. Heating the air inside a “hot-air” balloon raises the air’s temperature, causing it to expand, and forces air out the opening at the bottom. The reduced amount of air inside means its density is lower than the outside air, so there is a net buoyant force upward on the balloon. In this Chapter we study temperature and its effects on matter: thermal expansion and the gas laws.

2. Atomic Theory of Matter
Temperature and Thermometers
Thermal Equilibrium and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Thermal Expansion
Thermal Stress
The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature
The Ideal Gas Law

3. Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Molecules: Avogadro’s Number
Ideal Gas Temperature Scale—a Standard

4. Atomic Theory of Matter
Atomic and molecular masses are measured in unified atomic mass units (u). This unit is defined so that the carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly u. Expressed in kilograms:
1 u = x kg.
Brownian motion is the jittery motion of tiny flecks in water; these are the result of collisions with individual water molecules.
Figure Path of a tiny particle (pollen grain, for example) suspended in water. The straight lines connect observed positions of the particle at equal time intervals.

5. Atomic Theory of Matter
On a microscopic scale, the arrangements of molecules in solids (a), liquids (b), and gases (c) are quite different.
Figure Atomic arrangements in (a) a crystalline solid, (b) a liquid, and (c) a gas.

6. Atomic Theory of Matter
Distance between atoms.
The density of copper is 8.9 x 103 kg/m3, and each copper atom has a mass of 63 u. Estimate the average distance between the centers of neighboring copper atoms.
Solution: A cube of copper 1 meter on a side would contain 8.5 x 1028 atoms. This means that there are 4.4 x 109 atoms along each side, and they are 2.3 x m apart.

7. Temperature and Thermometers
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is.
Most materials expand when heated.
Figure Expansion joint on a bridge.

8. Temperature and Thermometers
Thermometers are instruments designed to measure temperature. In order to do this, they take advantage of some property of matter that changes with temperature.
Early thermometers:
Figure Thermometers built by the Accademia del Cimento (1657–1667) in Florence, Italy, are among the earliest known. These sensitive and exquisite instruments contained alcohol, sometimes colored, like many thermometers today.

9. Temperature and Thermometers
Common thermometers used today include the liquid-in-glass type and the bimetallic strip.
Figure (a) Mercury- or alcohol-in-glass thermometer; (b) bimetallic strip.
Figure Photograph of a thermometer using a coiled bimetallic strip.

10. Temperature and Thermometers
Temperature is generally measured using either the Fahrenheit or the Celsius scale.
The freezing point of water is 0°C, or 32°F; the boiling point of water is 100°C, or 212°F.
Figure Celsius and Fahrenheit scales compared.

11. Temperature and Thermometers
Taking your temperature.
Normal body temperature is 98.6°F. What is this on the Celsius scale?
Solution: Conversion gives 37.0 °C.

12. Temperature and Thermometers
A constant-volume gas thermometer depends only on the properties of an ideal gas, which do not change over a wide variety of temperatures. Therefore, it is used to calibrate thermometers based on other materials.
Figure Constant-volume gas thermometer.

13. Thermal Equilibrium and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Two objects placed in thermal contact will eventually come to the same temperature. When they do, we say they are in thermal equilibrium.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics says that if two objects are each in equilibrium with a third object, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
The zeroth law is the foundation of temperature measurement.

14. Thermal Expansion Linear expansion occurs when an object is heated.
Figure A thin rod of length l0 at temperature T0 is heated to a new uniform temperature T and acquires length l, where l = l0 + Δl.
Here, α is the coefficient of linear expansion.

15. Thermal Expansion

16. Thermal Expansion Bridge expansion.
The steel bed of a suspension bridge is 200 m long at 20°C. If the extremes of temperature to which it might be exposed are -30°C to +40°C, how much will it contract and expand?
Solution: Substitution gives 4.8 cm expansion and 12 cm contraction.

17. Thermal Expansion Do holes expand or contract?
If you heat a thin, circular ring in the oven, does the ring’s hole get larger or smaller?
Solution: It gets larger; the whole ring expands, including the hole.

18. Thermal Expansion Ring on a rod.
An iron ring is to fit snugly on a cylindrical iron rod. At 20°C, the diameter of the rod is cm and the inside diameter of the ring is cm. To slip over the rod, the ring must be slightly larger than the rod diameter by about cm. To what temperature must the ring be brought if its hole is to be large enough so it will slip over the rod?
Solution: The temperature needs to be raised by 430°C, to 450°C.

19. Thermal Expansion Opening a tight jar lid.
When the lid of a glass jar is tight, holding the lid under hot water for a short time will often make it easier to open. Why?
Solution: The lid will heat before the glass, and expand sooner. Also, metals generally expand more than glass for the same temperature difference.

20. Thermal Expansion
Volume expansion is similar, except that it is relevant for liquids and gases as well as solids:
Here, β is the coefficient of volume expansion.
For uniform solids, β ≈ 3α.

21. Thermal Expansion
For uniform solids, β ≈ 3α.

22. Thermal Expansion Gas tank in the Sun.
The 70-liter (L) steel gas tank of a car is filled to the top with gasoline at 20°C. The car sits in the Sun and the tank reaches a temperature of 40°C (104°F). How much gasoline do you expect to overflow from the tank?
Solution: Both the tank and the gasoline expand; the amount that spills is the difference. However, the gasoline expands by about 1.3 L, whereas the tank expands by about 0.05 L – the expansion of the tank makes little difference.

23. Thermal Expansion Volume-temperature relation for water
Figure 17-12: Behavior of water as a function of temperature near 4°C. (a) Volume of g of water, as a function of temperature. (b) Density vs. temperature. [Note the break in each axis.]

24. Thermal Expansion
Water behaves differently from most other solids—its minimum volume occurs when its temperature is 4°C. As it cools further, it expands, as anyone who leaves a bottle in the freezer to cool and then forgets about it can testify.
Another example is antimony 銻 (Sb).
Figure 17-12: Behavior of water as a function of temperature near 4°C. (a) Volume of g of water, as a function of temperature. (b) Density vs. temperature. [Note the break in each axis.]

25. Pressure Pressure is defined as the force per unit area.
Pressure is a scalar; the units of pressure in the SI system are pascals:
1 Pa = 1 N/m2.

26. Pressure The two feet of a 60-kg person cover an area of 500 cm2.
Determine the pressure exerted by the two feet on the ground.
(b) If the person stands on one foot, what will the pressure be under that foot?
Solution: a. The pressure is 12 x 103 N/m2.
b. The pressure is twice as much, 24 x 103 N/m2.

27. Pressure
The pressure at a depth h below the surface of the liquid is due to the weight of the liquid above it. We can quickly calculate:
Figure Calculating the pressure at a depth h in a liquid.
This relation is valid for any liquid whose density does not change with depth.

28. The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature
The relationship between the volume, pressure, temperature, and mass of a gas is called an equation of state.
We will deal here with gases that are not too dense.
Boyle’s law: the volume of a given amount of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure as long as the temperature is constant.
Figure 17-13: Pressure vs. volume of a fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature, showing the inverse relationship as given by Boyle’s law: as the pressure decreases, the volume increases.

29. The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature
The volume is linearly proportional to the temperature, as long as the temperature is somewhat above the condensation point and the pressure is constant. Extrapolating, the volume becomes zero at −273.15°C; this temperature is called absolute zero.
Figure Volume of a fixed amount of gas as a function of (a) Celsius temperature, and (b) Kelvin temperature, when the pressure is kept constant.

30. The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature
The concept of absolute zero allows us to define a third temperature scale—the absolute, or Kelvin, scale. This scale starts with 0 K at absolute zero, but otherwise is the same as the Celsius scale. Therefore, the freezing point of water is  K, and the boiling point is K.
Finally, when the volume is constant, the pressure is directly proportional to the temperature.

31. The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature
Why you should not throw a closed glass jar into a campfire.
What can happen if you did throw an empty glass jar, with the lid on tight, into a fire, and why?
Solution: The jar is filled with air, which will not be able to expand in the heat of the fire. Instead, the pressure inside the jar will increase, perhaps to the point where it blows the jar apart.

32. The Ideal Gas Law
We can combine the three relations just derived into a single relation:
What about the amount of gas present? If the temperature and pressure are constant, the volume is proportional to the amount of gas:
Figure Blowing up a balloon means putting more air (more air molecules) into the balloon, which increases its volume. The pressure is nearly constant (atmospheric) except for the small effect of the balloon’s elasticity.

33. The Ideal Gas Law
A mole (mol) is defined as the number of grams of a substance that is numerically equal to the molecular mass of the substance:
1 mol H2 has a mass of 2 g.
1 mol Ne has a mass of 20 g.
1 mol CO2 has a mass of 44 g.
The number of moles in a certain mass of material:

34. The Ideal Gas Law We can now write the ideal gas law:
where n is the number of moles and R is the universal gas constant.

35. Atmospheric Pressure
At sea level the atmospheric pressure is about x 105 N/m2; this is called 1 atmosphere (atm).
Another unit of pressure is the bar:
1 bar = 1.00 x 105 N/m2.
Standard atmospheric pressure is just over 1 bar.
This pressure does not crush us, as our cells maintain an internal pressure that balances it.

36. Atmospheric Pressure
This is a mercury barometer, developed by Torricelli to measure atmospheric pressure. The height of the column of mercury is such that the pressure in the tube at the surface level is 1 atm.
Therefore, pressure is often quoted in millimeters (or inches) of mercury.
Figure A mercury barometer, invented by Torricelli, is shown here when the air pressure is standard atmospheric, 76.0 cm-Hg.

37. Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Standard temperature and pressure (STP):
T = 273 K (0°C)
P = 1.00 atm = N/m2 = kPa.
Volume of one mole at STP.
Determine the volume of 1.00 mol of any gas, assuming it behaves like an ideal gas, at STP.
Solution: Substituting gives V = 22.4 x 10-3 m3, or 22.4 liters.

38. Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Helium balloon.
A helium party balloon, assumed to be a perfect sphere, has a radius of 18.0 cm. At room temperature (20°C), its internal pressure is 1.05 atm. Find the number of moles of helium in the balloon and the mass of helium needed to inflate the balloon to these values.
Solution: The volume of the balloon is m3. Using the gas law gives n = mol, which has a mass of 4.26 x 10-3 kg.

39. Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Mass of air in a room.
Estimate the mass of air in a room whose dimensions are 5 m x 3 m x 2.5 m high, at STP.
Solution: 1 mol has a volume of 22.4 x 10-3 m3, so the room contains about 1700 mol. Air is about 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen, giving a mass of about 50 kg.

40. Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Volume of 1 mol of an ideal gas is 22.4 L
If the amount of gas does not change:
Always measure T in kelvins
P must be the absolute pressure

41. Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law
Check tires cold.
An automobile tire is filled to a gauge pressure of 200 kPa at 10°C. After a drive of 100 km, the temperature within the tire rises to 40°C. What is the pressure within the tire now?
Solution: The volume stays the same, so the ratio of the pressure to the temperature does too. This gives a gauge pressure of 232 kPa.

42. Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Molecules: Avogadro’s Number
Since the gas constant is universal, the number of molecules in one mole is the same for all gases. That number is called Avogadro’s number:

43. Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Molecules: Avogadro’s Number
Therefore we can write: or
where k is called Boltzmann’s constant.

44. Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Molecules: Avogadro’s Number
Hydrogen atom mass.
Use Avogadro’s number to determine the mass of a hydrogen atom.
Solutions : Dive the mass of 1 mol by the number of atoms in a mole; the mass is 1.67 x kg.
17-15: 1 L is about mol, and contains about 3 x 1022 molecules.

45. Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Molecules: Avogadro’s Number
Estimate how many molecules you breathe in with a 1.0-L breath of air.
Solutions : Dive the mass of 1 mol by the number of atoms in a mole; the mass is 1.67 x kg.
17-15: 1 L is about mol, and contains about 3 x 1022 molecules.

46. Ideal Gas Temperature Scale—a Standard
This standard uses the constant-volume gas thermometer and the ideal gas law. There are two fixed points:
Absolute zero—the pressure is zero here
The triple point of water (where all three phases coexist), defined to be K—the pressure here is 4.58 torr.

47. Ideal Gas Temperature Scale—a Standard
Then the temperature is defined as:
In order to determine temperature using a real gas, the pressure must be as low as possible.

48. Summary All matter is made of atoms.
Atomic and molecular masses are measured in atomic mass units, u.
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is, and is measured by thermometers.
There are three temperature scales in use: Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin.
When heated, a solid will get longer by a fraction given by the coefficient of linear expansion.

49. Summary
The fractional change in volume of gases, liquids, and solids is given by the coefficient of volume expansion.
Ideal gas law: PV = nRT.
One mole of a substance is the number of grams equal to the atomic or molecular mass.
Each mole contains Avogadro’s number of atoms or molecules.

50. Kinetic Theory of Gases
Chapter opener. In this winter scene in Yellowstone Park, we recognize the three states of matter for water: as a liquid, as a solid (snow and ice), and as a gas (steam). In this Chapter we examine the microscopic theory of matter as atoms or molecules that are always in motion, which we call kinetic theory. We will see that the temperature of a gas is directly related to the average kinetic energy of its molecules. We will consider ideal gases, but we will also look at real gases and how they change phase, including evaporation, vapor pressure, and humidity.

51. The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
Distribution of Molecular Speeds
Real Gases and Changes of Phase
Van der Waals Equation of State

52. The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
Assumptions of kinetic theory:
large number of molecules, moving in random directions with a variety of speeds
molecules are far apart, on average
molecules obey laws of classical mechanics and interact only when colliding
collisions are perfectly elastic

53. The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
The force exerted on the wall by the collision of one molecule is
Then the force due to all molecules colliding with that wall is
Figure (a) Molecules of a gas moving about in a rectangular container. (b) Arrows indicate the momentum of one molecule as it rebounds from the end wall.

54. The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
The averages of the squares of the speeds in all three directions are equal:
So the pressure is:

55. The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
Rewriting, so
The average translational kinetic energy of the molecules in an ideal gas is directly proportional to the temperature of the gas.

56. The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
Molecular kinetic energy.
What is the average translational kinetic energy of molecules in an ideal gas at 37°C?
Solution: Substitution gives K = 6.42 x J.

57. The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
We can now calculate the average speed of molecules in a gas as a function of temperature:

58. The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
Speeds of air molecules.
What is the rms speed of air molecules (O2 and N2) at room temperature (20°C)?
Solution: The speeds are found from equation 18-5, and are different for oxygen and nitrogen (it’s the kinetic energies that are the same). Oxygen: 480 m/s. Nitrogen: 510 m/s.

59. The Ideal Gas Law and the Molecular Interpretation of Temperature
Average speed and rms speed.
Eight particles have the following speeds, given in m/s: 1.0, 6.0, 4.0, 2.0, 6.0, 3.0, 2.0, 5.0. Calculate (a) the average speed and (b) the rms speed.
Solution: The average is 3.6 m/s and the rms is 4.0 m/s.

60. Distribution of Molecular Speeds
The molecules in a gas will not all have the same speed; their distribution of speeds is called the Maxwell distribution:
Figure Distribution of speeds of molecules in an ideal gas. Note that vav and vrms are not at the peak of the curve. This is because the curve is skewed to the right: it is not symmetrical. The speed at the peak of the curve is the “most probable speed,” vp .

61. Distribution of Molecular Speeds
The Maxwell distribution depends only on the absolute temperature. This figure shows distributions for two different temperatures; at the higher temperature, the whole curve is shifted to the right.
Figure 18-3: Distribution of molecular speeds for two different temperatures.

62. Real Gases and Changes of Phase
The curves here represent the behavior of the gas at different temperatures. The cooler it gets, the further the gas is from ideal.
In curve D, the gas becomes liquid; it begins condensing at (b) and is entirely liquid at (a). The point (c) is called the critical point.
Figure PV diagram for a real substance. Curves A, B, C, and D represent the same substance at different temperatures (TA > TB > TC > TD).

63. Real Gases and Changes of Phase
Below the critical temperature, the gas can liquefy if the pressure is sufficient; above it, no amount of pressure will suffice.

64. Real Gases and Changes of Phase
A PT diagram is called a phase diagram; it shows all three phases of matter. The solid-liquid transition is melting or freezing; the liquid-vapor one is boiling or condensing; and the solid-vapor one is sublimation.
Phase diagram of water.
Figure Phase diagram for water (note that the scales are not linear).

65. Real Gases and Changes of Phase
The triple point is the only point where all three phases can coexist in equilibrium.
Phase diagram of carbon dioxide.
Figure Phase diagram for carbon dioxide.

66. Van der Waals Equation of State
To get a more realistic model of a gas, we include the finite size of the molecules and the range of the intermolecular force beyond the size of the molecule.
Figure Molecules, of radius r, colliding.

67. Van der Waals Equation of State
We assume that some fraction b of the volume is unavailable due to the finite size of the molecules. We also expect that the pressure will be reduced by a factor proportional to the square of the density, due to interactions near the walls. This gives the Van der Waals equation of state; the constants a and b are found experimentally for each gas:

68. Van der Waals Equation of State
The PV diagram for a Van der Waals gas fits most experimental data quite well.
Figure PV diagram for a van der Waals gas, shown for four different temperatures. For TA, TB, and TC (TC is chosen equal to the critical temperature), the curves fit experimental data very well for most gases. The curve labeled TD, a temperature below the critical point, passes through the liquid–vapor region. The maximum (point b) and minimum (point d) would seem to be artifacts, since we usually see constant pressure, as indicated by the horizontal dashed line (and Fig. 18–4). However, for very pure supersaturated vapors or supercooled liquids, the sections ab and ed, respectively, have been observed. (The section bd would be unstable and has not been observed.)

69. Summary
The average kinetic energy of molecules in a gas is proportional to the temperature.
Below the critical temperature, a gas can liquefy if the pressure is high enough.
At the triple point, all three phases are in equilibrium.
Evaporation occurs when the fastest moving molecules escape from the surface of a liquid.
Saturated vapor pressure occurs when the two phases are in equilibrium.

70. Summary
Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual vapor pressure to the saturated vapor pressure.
The Van der Waals equation of state takes into account the finite size of molecules.
The mean free path is the average distance a molecule travels between collisions.
Diffusion is the process whereby the concentration of a substance becomes uniform.