1. © Oxford University Press 2009 The Disappearing Canopy The Causes

2. © Oxford University Press 2009 What human activities cause tropical deforestation? Agriculture

3. © Oxford University Press 2009 Commercial loggingMiningDam construction

4. © Oxford University Press 2009 What human activities cause deforestation in tropical rainforests? Agriculture Commercial logging Mining Dam construction

5. © Oxford University Press 2009 Population growth What are the underlying causes of tropical deforestation? PopulationResources demandedPopulation increasesResources demanded ( decrease / increase ) People demand for more food, timber, minerals, etc. Tropical rainforests provide land and resources for people.

6. © Oxford University Press 2009 What are the underlying causes of tropical deforestation? As long as child mortality remains high, people will continue to have large families. This is no official family planning in Brazil because of the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. Among Malays, Chinese and Indians lived in Malaysia, Malays tend to have more children in the family. Their ideal family size is to have more than four children. Why is population growth high in rainforested countries?

7. © Oxford University Press 2009 What are the underlying causes of tropical deforestation? Poverty Many tropical countries have a low level of economic development. The people are poor and receive little education. Levels of technology and productivity is low. Governments of poor countries do not have enough capital for economic development. These countries are usually heavily in debt. People picking up waste in a landfill in Cambodia (Credit: Ng Kim Hung)

8. © Oxford University Press 2009 Government policy What are the underlying causes of tropical deforestation? Provide subsidies to commercial farmers Encourage migration of people to the rainforests Improve road network to increase accessibility Corruption Local governments are attracted by loans given by international loan agencies for financing projects in exploiting rainforests Loose land tenure laws enabling developers to buy land in the rainforest

9. © Oxford University Press 2009

10. Agriculture A Shifting cultivation Shifting cultivation is mostly practised by native peoples and landless or poor peasants. Shifting cultivators grow different crops, such as maize, beans, yams, bananas and pineapples. Some grow tree crops such as cocoa and coffee.

11. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture A Shifting cultivation (Credit: Mark Edwards/Still Pictures) The cultivators clear the site by cutting and burning the trees The cleared plot is cultivated for several years until the soil nutrients are used up The cultivators abandon the existing plot and move to a new plot of land (Credit: Yann Arthus-Bertrand/Corbis)

12. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture A Shifting cultivation Major characteristics of shifting cultivation: Subsistence, mainly for own consumption small farm size labour intensive staple crop growing Footage showing shifting cultivation in western Africa Please click to browse online The carrying capacity of the land in tropical rainforest is low. Therefore, shifting cultivation is considered a sustainable practice.

13. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture A Shifting cultivation Why has shifting cultivation become destructive to the tropical rainforest? Rapid growth in population Growing more crops on the same amount of land More landless peasants becoming shifting cultivators in the rainforest also cause more destruction to the rainforest Soil fertility declines The cultivation cycle is shortened

14. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture A Shifting cultivation The pros: -It may be a suitable way to make use of the harsh environment in the TRF, with the low level of technology. - The labour productivity is relatively high. - The energy output (harvest) is high when compared with the energy input. i.e. a high energy ratio - It causes little environmental damage, providing that the fallow period is long enough (e.g. 20 yrs)

15. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture A Shifting cultivation The cons: -It increases loss of nutrients by burning of biomass, leaching of bases and increased soil erosion. -It degrades the primary forest (the climatic climax) to secondary forest, resulted in lower density, lower height, smaller biomass, lower species diversity and more open structure. -It can only support a very small population size, or the exceeding population pressure may cause long term ecological damages. * Viscous cycle of soil depletion: poor harvest frequent movement shorter cultivation cycle shortened fallow period lower soil fertility …

16. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture B Plantations Tropical rainforests are felled for growing cash crops: Tree crop: rubber, oil palm, cocoa and coffee Arable crop: sugar cane and soybean Coffee plantation in Brazil (Credit: Biosphoto/Gunther Michel/Peter Arnold Inc.)

17. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture B Plantations Location Rubber / oil palm plantation: West Malaysia Coffee plantation: Brazil Cocoa plantation: West Africa & Caribbean areas Banana plantation: Caribbean areas

18. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture B Plantations Major characteristics of plantations: carried out by large corporations monoculture (single crop cultivation) Commercial, export- oriented large farm size cash crop growing Soybean plantation in Brazil (Credit: Fernando Bueno/Getty Images)

19. © Oxford University Press 2009 Soybean plantation in Brazil (Credit: Fernando Bueno/Getty Images) Agriculture B Plantations Economic development results in a large demand for tropical cash crops. This accelerates the destruction of the tropical rainforest. In recent years, more soybeans have been grown in the rainforest to satisfy the increasing demand for biofuel.

20. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture B Plantations Reasons for destruction of the tropical rainforest: -Deliberate introduction & cultivation of economically desired species of tropical / subtropical plants -Causing widespread replacement of the native & natural flora (and fauna), modifications or disturbance of the natural landscape. -Artificial practices e.g. permanent removal of natural vegetation, improvement of drainage and soil, application of chemicals

21. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture C Cattle ranching Tropical rainforests are cleared to provide pastureland for cattle ranching. Major characteristics of cattle ranching in tropical rainforests: commercial extensive large farm size mainly for export Cattle ranching in Brazil (Credit: Mark Edwards/Still Pictures)

22. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture C Cattle ranching Location Central America: at least 2/3 of the arable land is used for cattle production Amazon Basin: about 1/5 had been cleared for farming and cattle ranching * Brazil: - the world’s largest exporter of beef since 2004 - cattle ranching accounted for 60% of forest loss from 2000 to 2005

23. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture C Cattle ranching Demand for beef increases Overgrazing occurs Cattle ranchers move on new sites and cut trees for creating pastureland Soil is exposed to erosion Soil quality deteriorates Deforestation spreads fast

24. © Oxford University Press 2009 Agriculture C Cattle ranching – the case of Brazil Why is the Amazon rainforest so popular for cattle ranching? In Brazil, cattle ranching accounted for 60% of forest loss from 2000 to 2005 Cheap and extensive land supply Poor awareness of environmental conservation Supported by local governments Expansion of road network, i.e. Trans-Amazonian Highway Attractive price of Brazilian beef Brazilian beef being free of livestock diseases

25. © Oxford University Press 2009 Commercial logging Most trees in the tropical rainforests are hardwoods. They are quality raw materials for construction purposes and for making furniture, e.g. Teak, Mahogany, Brazilian Rosewood.

26. © Oxford University Press 2009 Location Central & Western Africa Thailand Indonesia The Amazon Basin, etc. * They export large amount of tropical timbers, sawn wood and plywood to the developed countries. The US & UK have been the main importers of Mahogany. The vulnerable Brazilian Rosewood has been harvested as a highly prized wood for decorative veneers, high- quality furniture (e.g. musical instruments), resin & oil. Commercial logging

27. © Oxford University Press 2009 Commercial logging Logging in the rainforest is destructive since... Logging activities are often unchecked / greenwashed. Clear-cutting is carried out. Tools: elephants vs bulldozers, caterpillar wheels, crane? Trees are cut to provide space and to build roads. The roads built by the logging companies provide access for other forest users.

28. © Oxford University Press 2009 Improved logging and transport technologies Increased environmental awareness of the more developed countries Poor forest management Illegal logging activities Rate of logging accelerates in tropical rainforests because of: Commercial logging

29. © Oxford University Press 2009 Mining and oil and gas exploitation Many rainforests are rich in mineral reserves, e.g. bauxite, coal, tin, and oil and gas deposits, by open-cast, strip and shaft mining methods. Urucu oil and natural gas plant in the Amazon Gold mining in the Amazon (Credit: Reuters/OTHK)

30. © Oxford University Press 2009 Hydroelectric power (HEP) is generated in rainforested countries to provide energy with plentiful water supply. The Itaipu Dam in the Amazon rainforest HEP is considered the most reliable source of energy in the rainforested countries because: it rains every day in the tropical rainforests; high annual rainfall; water never freezes. How about the problems? Dam construction (Credit: Reuters/OTHK)