1. Electrostatics GIRL SAFELY CHARGED TO SEVERAL HUNDRED THOUSAND VOLTS GIRL IN GREAT DANGER AT SEVERAL THOUSAND VOLTS

2. The Nature of Electric Charge The Greeks first noticed electric charges by rubbing amber with fur. In Greek, “elektron” means amber, and “atomos” means indivisible. Charge is conserved: it cannot be created or destroyed. Charges aren’t “used up”, but their energy can be “harnessed”. Charges are arbitrarily called positive and negative. In most cases, only the negative charge is mobile. Electrons are the smallest negative charge (q e ) and protons have equal positive charge (q p ). Discovery of charge Like charges repel, unlike charges attract. Properties of charge Charge is quantized, meaning it comes in discrete amounts of fundamental charge (like money comes in multiples of pennies), so total charge = integer × fundamental unit of charge (q = n × e).

3. Insulators and Conductors Electrons are “bound in orbit” to the nucleus of the atom. Charges on an insulator don’t distribute. Outer orbit electrons easily move from one atom to another, so electricity can “flow”. Charges on a conductor distribute to the surface. Insulators Conductors Materials designed to have specific electrical properties that precisely control electrical flow. Semiconductors, Superconductors Many conductors are attached to insulators to avoid grounding (appliances, tools).

4. Polarization In a conductor, “free” electrons move around, leaving one side positive and the other side negative. Polarization is the separation of charge In an insulator, the electrons “realign” themselves within the atom (or molecule), leaving one side of the atom positive and the other side of the atom negative. Polarization is not necessarily a charge imbalance!

5. Charging by Friction Insulators have different affinities for electrons. A triboelectric series shows the relative affinity. Tribo = Greek for rubbing. POSITIVE Rabbit's fur Glass Human hair Nylon Wool Cat's fur Silk Paper Cotton Wood Plexiglass Wax Amber Polyester Styrofoam Rubber balloon Hard rubber Plastic wrap Scotch tape Celluloid PVC Silicon Teflon NEGATIVE When insulators are rubbed together, one gives up electrons and becomes positively charged, while the other gains electrons and becomes negatively charged. sweater pulled over your head that sparks laundry from the dryer that clings Common examples of charging by friction: A material will give electrons to another that is below it on the series. The further apart, the greater charge transfer small shocks from a doorknob after walking on carpet with rubber-soled shoes balloon rubbed with hair sticks that to a wall click for applet

6. Charging by Induction Step 1. A charged rod is brought near an isolated conductor. The influence of the charged object polarizes the conductor, but does not yet charge it. Step 2. The conductor is grounded, allowing electrons to flow out. (If the rod were positive, electrons would flow into the conductor.) Induction uses one charged object to “coerce” charge flow into another object. Step 3. The ground path is removed while the charged rod is still near the conductor, which is still polarized. Step 4. The rod is removed and the conductor now has an induced charge. (A positive rod could also induce a negative charge on the conductor). An induced object has the opposite sign of the inducing object, and the inducing object does not lose charge. click for animation click for animation INDUCTION CHARGING

7. Charging by Conduction When a charged conductor makes contact with a neutral conductor there is a transfer of charge. Electrons transferred from rod to ball, leaving both negatively charged. Electrons transferred from ball to rod, leaving both positively charged. Only electrons are free to move in solids. CHARGING NEGATIVELYCHARGING POSITIVELY The original charged object loses some charge. you tube video CONDUCTION CHARGING

8. Electric Forces and Electric Fields CHARLES COULOMB (1736-1806) MICHAEL FARADAY (1791-1867)

9. Electrostatic Charges A Fundamental Physics Quantity Charge of electron: q e = –1.6 × 10 -19 C Mass of electron: m e = 9.11 × 10 -31 kg The metric unit for charge is called the coulomb (C). Common electrostatic charges are small: millicoulomb = mC = 10 -3 C microcoulomb = μC = 10 -6 C nanocoulomb = nC = 10 -9 C Electrostatic charge is a fundamental quantity like length, mass, and time. The symbol for charge is q. ATTRACTION AND REPULSION Charge of proton: q p = +1.6 × 10 -19 C Mass of proton: m p = 1.67 × 10 -27 kg MILIKAN’S OIL DROP EXPERIMENT

10. The Electrostatic Force – a Vector! The constant k = 9.0 x 10 9. Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatic Force constant distance (in meters) charges (in Coulombs) electrostatic force (in Newtons) The force depends inversely on the square of distance between charges. A torsion balance measures the force between small charges. The force is a vector, having magnitude and direction. The electrostatic force depends directly on the magnitude of the charges. TORSION BALANCE Charles Coulomb’s Torsion Balance Opposite charges have a negative force (attractive), and alike charges have a positive force (repulsive). It is best to calculate the magnitude of the force only, and then consider the direction of force. Inverse Square Law Web Page

11. The Electrostatic Force EXAMPLE 1 - Find the magnitude of the force between these two charges. EXAMPLE 2 – Another charge is added. Find the magnitude of the force between the positive charges. Then find the net force on the far left charge. q 1 = +5 μC q 2 = –8 μC r = 40 cm q 3 = +2 μC r = 15 cm

12. Electric Field Strength – a Vector DEFINITION OF GRAVITATIONAL FIELD DEFINITION OF ELECTRIC FIELD Field theory rationalizes force at a distance. A charge influences the space around it – the altered space influences other charges! Metric unit of electric fieldElectric field vector direction m is a small mass q 0 is a small, positive test charge click for web page

13. Electric Field Lines Density of field lines indicates electric field strength Inverse square law – like force! Definition of E Field for single point charge POSITIVE CHARGENEGATIVE CHARGE constant distance (in meters) charge (in coulombs) electric field (in N/C) Single Point Charges click for applet

14. Electric Field Lines Electric fields for multiple point charges POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE POINT CHARGESTWO POSITIVE POINT CHARGES click for applet OPPOSITE MAGNETIC POLESALIKE MAGNETIC POLES click for applet

15. Potential Difference (Voltage) A volt is the unit for potential, named after Alessandro Volta, inventor of the first battery. A good analogy: potential is to temperature, as potential energy is to thermal energy. Electric potential is average energy per charge. Potential difference is often called voltage. Energy is a relative quantity (absolute energy doesn’t exist), so the change in electric potential, called potential difference, is meaningful. Voltage is only dangerous when a lot of energy is transferred. click for web page Voltage & energy are scalars (no direction.) Source (bold = ouch!) Voltage (V) AA, C, D battery1.5 car battery12 household circuit120 comb through hair500 utility pole4,400 electric fence7,500 transmission line120,000 Van de Graaff400,000 lightning10 9 An electron volt (eV) is an alternate unit for energy.

16. Potential Difference & Electric Field 4400 VOLT POWER LINE ILLUMINATES FLUORESCENT LIGHT BECAUSE OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN THE ELECTRIC FIELD You tube video Energy change occurs when charge moves through and electric field (like mass through a gravity field). Potential difference (energy change per charge) depends on electric field. Equipotential lines are equal energy locations (right angle to electric field.)

17. Potential Difference for Constant Electric Field voltage E field distance Potential energy is often stored in a capacitor. Most capacitors have constant electric fields. Capacitors are made by putting an insulator in between two conductors. Example Calculate the magnitude of the electric field set up in a 2-millimeter wide capacitor connected to a 9-volt battery.