1. Chapter Seventeen Power and Sexual Coercion

2. Agenda  Review Trends Associated with Rape and Sexual Assault  Discuss Effects of Rape  Reporting, Avoiding, and Treating Rapists  Discuss Sexual Abuse of Children  Discuss Intimate Partner Violence  Discuss Sexual Harassment

3. Class Exercise: Part 1  I am going to read a series of statements. After I read one, if you agree with it stand up. If you disagree, remain in your seat.  Please note that everyone has a right to their own opinion.  Date rape happens because of mixed messages.  Stranger rape is more traumatic than date rape.  Women say “no” when they really mean “yes”.  Women lie about rape.  A child who is sexually assaulted I an innocent victim.  A woman who was drinking is partially to blame if she is raped.  I know someone who was raped.

4. Class Exercise: Part 2  Discuss any of the statements that you feel comfortable talking about.  Create a list of recommendations to help lower the incidence of date rape.

5. Trends Associated with Rape & Sexual Assault Defining Rape and Sexual Assault Incidence of Rape Characteristics of Rapists Theories about Rape Gender Differences in Attitudes about Rape Ethnic Differences in Attitudes about Rape Rape in Different Cultures

6. Defining Rape and Sexual Assault  Rape is physically or psychologically forced sexual intercourse  Sexual assault is the unwanted touching (including penetration) of an intimate body part for sexual arousal

7. Legal Definition of Rape and Sexual Assault  Every state has its own legal definitions of rape and sexual assault  Commonly included in the definitions are lack of consent, force or threat of force, & vaginal penetration  Ejaculation is not necessary in most states  Those that have been sexually assaulted may be referred to as victims or survivors

8. Incidence of Rape  One of the most underreported crimes in the U.S.  Only Half of rapes are reported  Some do not report because they  don’t think it was rape  think they did something to cause it  are shamed and humiliated  fear they won’t be taken seriously Continued …

9. Incidence of Rape  Estimated that 25% of U.S. women will be raped in her adult lifetime  Rape is most common during the summer, and at the lowest in December  Rape prevalence:  Industrialized nations: 21-25%  Non-industrialized nations: 43-90%  Prevalent on college campuses, primarily by acquaintances & with verbal sexual coercion

10. Class Discussion  Why do you think that only half of rapes are reported?  Discuss implications for each of your reasons. What could be done to help support rape victims so that they would report?

11. Characteristics of Rapists  Why men rape is mostly unanswered  60% of college men stated they would use rape or force under the right conditions (Ceniti & Malamuth,1984) Continued …

12. Characteristics of Rapists  Between 15-30  Single  Antisocial personality patterns  High impulsivity & aggression levels  Negative early interpersonal experiences  Especially with their father  Sexist  Accept rape myths  Low self-esteem  Politically conservative  Past sexual abuse  Use violent & degrading pornography

13. Number of rapes/sexual assaults by relationship to offender, 2003. Source: U.S. Department of Justice-Office of Justice Programs, 2003.

14. Theories about Rape  Rapist Psychopathology: A Disease Model  Victim Precipitation Theory: Blaming the Victim  Feminist Theory: Keeping Women in Their Place  Sociological Theory: Balance of Power

15. Rapist Psychopathology: A Disease Model  Men rape due to alcohol intoxication, mental illness, or uncontrollable sexual urges  Disease or alcohol leads men to rape  Research fails to support any physical distinguishing characteristics of rapists

16. Victim Precipitation Theory: Blaming the Victim  Victims make themselves vulnerable to rape by their dress, behaviors, & where they go  Women are not engaging in risky behavior prior to the majority of rapes  Men are more likely to believe this theory than women  This line of thinking adds to victim’s guilt

17. Feminist Theory: Keeping Women in Their Place  Rape and its threat is used by society to keep women in a position subordinate to men’s  Sex-role stereotyping encourages rape  Men are strong & aggressive  Women are weak & passive

18. Sociological Theory: Balance of Power  Rape is an expression of power differentials in society  When men feel they are losing power, they need to overpower women with their symbol of masculinity (penis) to reestablish a sense of control over the world  Rape is a matter of power issues and sexual issues

19. Gender Differences in Attitudes about Rape  Men have less sensitive attitudes toward rape & attribute more responsibility to the victim, believe more rape myths & tend to read friendly or neutral signals as an invitation to sex  Females find rape more justified if a woman was “leading a man on”  Men seem to have a decline in negative rape attitudes over the four years in college

20. Rape in Different Cultures  The U.S. has the highest number of reported rapes  Rape incidence varies by each culture’s definition  In some cultures rape is accepted as a legitimate form of punishment  In some cultures, rape is used as a form of initiation

21. Rape on Campus  35 of 1000 college women are raped or have an attempted rape each year  Most knew their attacker  Most college students do not feel comfortable reporting the attacks or pressing charges  Most only tell a friend  8-16% of women & 2-7% of men have been stalked, though the genders have different definitions of stalking

22. Percentages of stalking behaviors on college campuses. Source: B. S. Fisher et al., 2000; Stalking Resource Center, 2000.

23. Alcohol and Rape  Alcohol use is one of the strongest predictors of acquaintance rape  Involved in half of all rape cases, either by the victim, attacker, or both  Alcohol “sexualizes” the environment for men  Alcohol increases flirting & teasing for some women  Alcohol increases risky sexual behavior in women & men

24. Alcohol and Rape  43% of college women have regretted intercourse while intoxicated  A drunk man who is accused of rape is seen as less responsible due to the alcohol  A drunk woman who was raped is seen as more responsible for her behavior

25. Discuss Double Standard about Alcohol and Rape  Research suggests the following:  A drunk man who is accused of rape is seen as less responsible due to the alcohol  A drunk woman who was raped is seen as more responsible for her behavior  Why do you think this double standard exists?  What are the implications of this double standard?

26. Effects of Rape Rape Trauma Syndrome Silent Rape Reaction Rape of Partners and Other Special Populations How Partners React to Rape

27. Rape Trauma Syndrome (RTS)  RTS is a 2-stage response pattern of physical, behavioral, psychological, and/or sexual problems  Acute Phase (stage 1)  Long-term Reorganization (stage 2)

28. RTS: Acute Phase  Begins immediately and may last many weeks  Fear of being alone, of strangers, & of the place where the rape occurred  Anger, anxiety, confusion, shock, disbelief, incoherence, guilt, humiliation, shame, self- blame  Wide mood fluctuations  Difficulties sleeping, nightmares  Most women tell someone, though half wait years to do so Continued …

29. RTS: Acute Phase  Most speak with friends or family, rather than police, especially if younger  Depression may last up to 1 year, especially if prior psychological problems, victimization, or a tendency to self-blame; may lead to suicide  If she knew her attacker she experiences more depression & guilt and loses some self-confidence  If the attacker was a stranger, she experiences more anxiety, fear, & startle responses  Physical symptoms can include soreness, bruises, vaginal itching, STI symptoms, eating problems, & menstrual irregularities

30. RTS: Long-Term Reorganization  Long-term reorganization (stage 2) – can persist for several years  Involves restoring order & regaining control  Sexual difficulties can persist for years and counseling can help  Fear of sex  Desire & arousal disorders  Positive crisis intervention & supportive others can decrease trauma symptoms

31. Silent Rape Reaction  Some victims never discuss the rape with others, they repress & deny it until they feel stronger emotionally  Will experience many of the same symptoms of RTS  Those who take longer to tell another person usually suffers a longer recovery period

32. Marital Rape  Marital rape is a crime in all states since 1993  Legal definitions vary by state  10-14% of married women are raped by their husbands  Victims report symptoms similar to non- marital victims  Often feel very betrayed & lose trust in others  Often there is little social support

33. Rape of Women with Disabilities  They are raped twice as often as women without disabilities  May be more vulnerable because they are less able to fight back and lack sexual knowledge  Some may not realize their rights have been violated  RTS is typically longer in this population

34. How Partners React to Rape  They often feel anger, frustration, feelings of revenge, sense of loss, guilt, self-blame, & jealousy  Rape places a lot of stress on a relationship  Couples are often reluctant to bring the topic up, however, open communication is helpful  A stable & supportive partner can help a victim recover more quickly

35. When Men are Rape Victims Rape of Men by Women Rape of Men by Men Prison Rape

36. When Men are Rape Victims  5% of reported rapes are of male victims  Male rape is more underreported than female rape  Men who are raped are often viewed more negatively than women who have been raped  Men experience symptoms similar to women & they can be long-lasting

37. Rape of Men by Women  Female rapists have used forced sex & verbal coercion; most use psychological or pressured contact  Of male college students, 34% reported coercive sexual contact:  24% from women  4% from men  6% from both  20% experienced strong negative reactions

38. Rape of Men by Men  1 out of 6 have unwanted sexual contact from an adult by 16  Most common sexual assault is anal penetration, then oral penetration  Getting the victim to ejaculate is important to the attacker because it makes it less likely he will report & it “proves” the victim “wanted it”  May lead to questioning of sexual orientation and increase in sex to reaffirm his manhood

39. Prison Rape  Prison Rape Elimination Act (2003) – a federal law with little tolerance for prison sexual assault & required data collection  18% of inmates report sexual threat  8.5% report sexual assault  More typical with male inmates, though female inmates may be penetrated with a variety of objects

40. Prison Rape  Females are most often victimized by prison staff  Assaulted inmates may experience RTS and posttraumatic stress disorder  Inmates must continue to interact with their assailants, which can increase the length of RTS  They also lack access to rape crisis centers or sympathy from employees

41. Reporting, Avoiding, and Treating Rapists Reporting a Rape Avoidance Strategies Treating the Rapist

42. Reporting a Rape  Estimates are that 1 in 7 rapes are reported  More likely to report if it was by a stranger, there was violence, & if there was a weapon  Women are less likely to report if it doesn’t fit the stereotypical rape scenario  Men are less likely to report if their masculine identity is at risk  Those who report to the police have a better adjustment

43. Process Associated with Reporting a Rape  Tell the Police  Press Charges  Court Procedures

44. Telling the Police  Campus police are often notified before local police  Campus police can issue fines or dismissal  Local police can press charges  Alerts police of a crime  File formal reports needed for legal action  Some rape victims have negative experiences with the police & often go through an interrogation of the situation

45. Pressing Charges  Often the victim feels as if they are going through a second rape because they are put on trial more than the accused rapist  Court takes a lot of time, energy, & anxiety  Charges are pressed because of anger, to protect others, or for justice  Not pressing charges may be due to fear, wanting to forget, pitying the rapist  Civil lawsuits are easier to prove than criminal

46. Going to Court  A victim may wish to sit in on another rape trial to prepare  The victim may also prepare for the possibility of a not guilty verdict

47. Avoidance Strategies  Rape is the only violent crime we expect someone to fight back  Proof of a struggle seems to produce sympathy; some victims are frozen with fear  A person should try to escape as first strategy  If escape is not possible, try screaming, dissuasive techniques, empathy, negotiation, & stalling for time  Safest strategy is to make yourself a person

48. Treating the Rapist  Some therapies: shock treatment, support groups, behavioral therapy, psychotherapy, & Depo-Provera  Results for these methods are inconclusive  First step in treatment is to accept responsibility for their actions  Also try to decrease rape myths & increase knowledge  Attitudes appear to change, but behavior changes are not certain  High risk rapists (repeat offenders) don’t seem to go through treatment with much success

49. Sexual Abuse of Children Incidence Victims of Sexual Abuse How Children are Affected Characteristics of Abusers Treating Sexual Abuse Preventing Child Sexual Abuse

50. Sexual Abuse of Children  Child sexual abuse – sexual behavior that occurs between a child and much older person  Behaviors are all illegal if the child is not old enough or mature enough to consent  Child sexual abuse – with nonrelatives  Pedophilia – compulsive desire for a particular age  Incest – with relatives Continued …

51. Sexual Abuse of Children  Incest taboo is universal, due to the vulnerable position of children in relation to their parents; incest definitions vary by culture  Many types of incest  In the U.S., offenders are usually uncles and male first cousins  Sibling incest & sex games also occur  Most incestual abusers are male

52. Incidence  Accurate statistics are difficult  Estimated 25% of girls and 10% of boys are sexually abused as a child  False child abuse reports occur in less than 10% of cases

53. Victims of Sexual Abuse  Median age for boys & girls is 8 or 9  40% of abused boys & 21% of abused girls are abused by strangers  29% of abused girls & 11% of abused boys are abused by family members  Reports of male sexual abuse may be lower than females because boys feel they must be self-reliant, they should be able to handle it, & there is a homosexuality stigma Continued …

54. Victims of Sexual Abuse  Abuse reactions vary: fear, shame, self-blame  May seek help to protect younger siblings  Younger victims go to a relative for help  Older victims may run away or marry early  Incest with biological father creates the longest delay in reporting  Incest with stepfathers or live-in partners report the most quickly

55. How Children are Affected  Conflicting findings  Some report little traumatization  Some state there are long-lasting effects that may lead to other psychological problems  Trauma is more severe if the abuse was for a long time by a trusted person, penetration occurred, there was aggression, and it was not handled well in the family

56. Psychological and Emotional Reactions  Sexual abuse can cause feelings of betrayal, powerlessness, shame, guilt, fear, anger, self-blame, frustration, low self-esteem, & intimacy problems  Psychological problems can include anxiety, depression, nervousness, emotional problems, dissociative disorder, posttraumatic stress syndrome, and personality disorders  They are more likely to commit suicide

57. Long-Term Effects  Traumatic sexualization  Childhood: compulsive sex play or masturbation; much sexual knowledge  Teens: promiscuity & frequent sex acts  Adulthood: sexual abuse of others  Eating disorders, drug/alcohol abuse, prostitution  Learned sex is how they get attention from adults; “bad” is incorporated into their self

58. Characteristics of Abusers  Poor social skills, lower IQs, unhappy family life, lower self-esteem, less happiness in life  Most are heterosexual males with strict religious codes  Often they deny responsibility & claim they were in a trance  They are very good with manipulation & blaming the victim for the abuse  The Development of a Sexual Abuser

59. The Development of a Sexual Abuser  3 prominent theories:  Learning – sexually abused as a child; learned from others how to show affection to children  Gender – males are not taught how to express affection without sexuality; socialized to be attracted to smaller mates  Biological – elevated levels of hormones (not testosterone); neurological differences

60. Helping the Victims Heal  Most effective treatments combine cognitive & behavioral psychotherapies that help the victim understand & handle the trauma  Partners of victims can also benefit from counseling

61. Treating Abusers  Treatment of sexual abusers is similar to that of pedophiles  Main goal: decrease arousal to children  Other goals: better adult relations, assertiveness training, empathy & respect, sexual education  May use behavioral therapy, drugs, or psychotherapy  High recidivism rates

62. Preventing Child Sexual Abuse  “Just say no” campaign – teaches children how to say no  Increase the availability to sex education  Better funding & staffing of child welfare agencies

63. Intimate Partner Violence Defining Intimate Partner Violence and Coercion Preventing Intimate Partner Violence

64. Intimate Partner Violence  Also called domestic violence  29% of women & 22% of men experienced intimate partner violence in their lifetime  Psychological symptoms: depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, antisocial behavior, fear of intimacy  Physical symptoms: headaches, back pain, broken bones, stomach problems, gynecological disorders

65. Defining Intimate Partner Violence and Coercion  It is the use of threats, harassment, or intimidation that may include physical, emotional, and/or sexual abuse  Usually there is a pattern of abuse, not just one incident  Many victims believe the problems are their fault & that it is safer in the relationship  Finances, low self-esteem, fear, & isolation can make it difficult for a woman to leave

66. Preventing Intimate Partner Violence  Related factors: history of partner violence in the offender’s family, excessive alcohol use  Educational programs & safe housing can help victims

67. Sexual Harassment Incidence and Reporting of Harassment Preventing Sexual Harassment

68. Sexual Harassment  Sexual pressure imposed on someone who is not in a position to refuse it  Broad term that includes jokes, unwanted sexual advances, a “friendly” pat, “accidental” touches  Many people are confused about what it all entails  Can create psychological side effects similar to rape & sexual assault; also, suicide

69. Incidence and Reporting of Harassment  25-30% of college students report experiencing sexual harassment  Typically sexist jokes, comments, or touching  The majority do not report it, though it is prohibited by federal law  Women are 9 times more likely to quit a job, 5 times more likely to transfer, & 3 times more likely to lose their job due to sexual harassment Continued …

70. Incidence and Reporting of Harassment  Sexual harassment can happen to men, as well as women  Sexual harassment creates a hostile & intimidating environment  Assertiveness (tell others or the offender) is the most effective strategy to deal with it  Gender differences exist in interpretation  Men may view something as flattering that women view as threatening

71. Preventing Sexual Harassment  First step – acknowledge the problem  Organizations and institutions should have established and strong policies to deal with sexual harassment  Education to help men adjust is necessary as more women are entering the workforce