1. 1 Psychology 320: Gender Psychology Lecture 48

2. 2 Achievement: 1. Are females more strongly influenced by evaluative feedback than males? (continued) 2. Do males and females make different attributions for success and failure?

3. 3 Explanation for greater susceptibility of females than males to evaluative feedback: Sex differences in self- construals. Self-construal (self-concept): A cognitive schema (i.e., organized knowledge structure) that contains beliefs about the self and controls the processing of self- relevant information. Are females more strongly influenced by evaluative feedback than males? (continued)

4. 4 Research has demonstrated that males are more likely than females to have an independent self- construal, whereas females are more likely than males to have an interdependent self-construal (Cross & Madson, 1997; Cross & Morris, 2003; Guimond et al., 2006)

5. 5 X X X X SELF X X X X X FATHER FRIEND CO-WORKER SIBLING MOTHER STRANGER X X X X X X X X X X X X X Out-Group In-Group The Independent Self-Construal

6. 6 X X SELF X X FATHER FRIEND CO-WORKER SIBLING MOTHER STRANGER X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Out-Group In-Group The Interdependent Self-Construal

7. 7 Independent Self-Construal Interdependent Self-Construal Definition of self Free from social context.Tied to social context. Structure of self Stable, bounded, unitary.Variable, flexible, fluid. Primary tasks Uniqueness, expression of internal attributes, promotion of personal goals. Fitting in, self-restraint, promotion of others’ goals. Role of others Self-evaluation (i.e., social comparison). Self-definition. Basis of self- esteem Ability to express oneself and one’s internal attributes. Ability to restrain oneself and maintain harmony with others. Independent Versus Interdependent Self-Construals (Markus & Kitayama, 1991)

8. 8 Theorists maintain that social norms (i.e., gender role expectations) cultivate the independent self-construal among males and the interdependent self-construal among females.

9. 9 Because relationships and collective goals are central to the interdependent self-construal, individuals with this self-construal are more responsive to “reflected appraisals” (i.e., evaluative feedback) from others than are those with an independent self-construal.

10. 10 Do males and females make different attributions for success and failure? Attributions for success and failure vary along three dimensions: Internality (internal vs. external cause), stability (stable vs. unstable cause), and globality (global vs. specific cause; Abramson, 1989; Weiner et al., 1971).

11. 11 Examples: I failed the psychology exam because … Internal, stable, global attribution: “I’m not very smart.” Internal, stable, specific attribution: “I’m not good at psychology.” External, stable, global attribution: “The grading system at UBC is not fair.” External, unstable, specific attribution: “The exam was too hard.” Internal, unstable, specific attribution: “I didn’t study enough for the exam.” External, stable, specific attribution: “The professor doesn’t like me.”

12. 12 A substantial body of research has documented an attributional bias: Individuals are more likely to make internal, stable, and global attributions (e.g., ability) for success than for failure. A number of studies have examined whether or not there is a sex difference in this attributional bias: This attributional bias preserves a positive self-view and enhances self-esteem.

13. 13  Dickhauser and Meyer, 2006 Among 8-9 year old girls and boys with comparable grades in math, found that: (a) girls were less likely than boys to attribute success to ability (i.e., an internal, stable, global attribution). (b) girls were more likely than boys to attribute failure to lack of ability (i.e., an internal, stable, global attribution).

14. 14 (c) this pattern of sex differences was strongest among the top math students in the sample. (d) teachers were more likely to attribute success to ability among boys and failure to lack of ability among girls. (e) girls attributions were based on their teacher’s attributions; boys attributions were based on their teacher’s attributions and on their objective math performance.

15. 15  Campbell and Henry, 1999 Among college students enrolled in a “management” course, found that: (b) females were more likely than males to attribute their success to effort (i.e., an internal, unstable, specific attribution). (a) males were more likely than females to attribute their success to ability (i.e., an internal, stable, global attribution).

16. 16  Rosenthal, 1995 Among managers at a financial services firm, civil engineering company, and local health authority, found that: (b) females were more likely than males to attribute their success to effort (i.e., an internal, unstable, specific attribution). (a) males were more likely than females to attribute their success to ability (i.e., an internal, stable, global attribution).

17. 17 (c) females were more likely than males to attribute the success of their subordinates to ability; males were more likely than females to attribute the success of their subordinates to effort. (d) females (but not males) believed ability had significantly more to do with the success of their subordinates than it had to do with their own success.

18. 18 Achievement: 1. Are females more strongly influenced by evaluative feedback than males? (continued) 2. Do males and females make different attributions for success and failure?