1. African Runners Dominance in Distance Running Steve Magness

2. Objectives Dominance Dominance Genetics Genetics Physiology Physiology Cultural and Social Factors Cultural and Social Factors Training Training

3. Dominance Out of the Distance events Out of the Distance events 800 800 1500 1500 3,000m steeple 3,000m steeple 5,000 5,000 10,000 10,000 Marathon Marathon Kenyans occupy over 50% of the top 20 times in each event. Kenyans occupy over 50% of the top 20 times in each event. Larsen, H. Kenyan dominance in distance running. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A 136 (2003) 161–170

4. Best Non-African Performance Steeple Steeple 163 rd best performance (Bob Tahri- France)* 163 rd best performance (Bob Tahri- France)* 5k 5k 98 th best performance (Craig Mottram-Australia)* 98 th best performance (Craig Mottram-Australia)* 10k 10k 106 th best performance (Arturo Barrios- Mexico) 106 th best performance (Arturo Barrios- Mexico) Marathon Marathon 18 th best performance (Ronaldo da Costa-Brazil) 18 th best performance (Ronaldo da Costa-Brazil) *There has been a faster non-african, but he later tested positive for drugs.

5. Time Comparison 80015003k steeple5k10kMarathon Best African1:41.113:26.007:53.6312:37.3526:17.532:03:59 Best Non African 1:41.73:28.988:06.9112:55.7627:08.232:06:16 % difference.68%1.45%2.81%2.44%3.21%1.84%

6. How Dominant are they? Depth Depth Number of sub 2:20 marathoners Number of sub 2:20 marathoners Nation19751985199520002005 Kenya01786296490 Britain2374341312 USA34103592722 Tanser, T. (2008) More Fire. Westholme Publishing, Pennsylvania.

7. Tribal Dominance Kenya Kenya 81% of top Kenyan Runners come from the Rift valley 81% of top Kenyan Runners come from the Rift valley Kalenjin tribe represents ~75% of all members competing on national teams. Kalenjin tribe represents ~75% of all members competing on national teams. 2007 world Cross country championships 2007 world Cross country championships 7 of 12 individual medals went to Kalenjins. 7 of 12 individual medals went to Kalenjins. Ethiopia Ethiopia 38% of the elite marathoners were from the Arsi region, which only makes up less than 5% of the total Ethiopian population. 38% of the elite marathoners were from the Arsi region, which only makes up less than 5% of the total Ethiopian population. Scott, R. et al. Genetics and the success of East African distance runners. International SportsMed Journal. Vol. 7 No.3 2006

8. Rift Valley phenomenon Proof of superior genetics? Proof of superior genetics? Rift Valley is at high altitude. Rift Valley is at high altitude. However, Rift Valley extends 3,000mi However, Rift Valley extends 3,000mi Includes many countries that have slow national records in distance events Includes many countries that have slow national records in distance events Some of Kenya’s top runners ever did not come from the rift valley Some of Kenya’s top runners ever did not come from the rift valley Two 10k gold medalist, one WR holding 5k runner, and one marathon gold medalist Two 10k gold medalist, one WR holding 5k runner, and one marathon gold medalist Several Kenyan villages/towns at “ideal” altitudes have produced no world class runners. Several Kenyan villages/towns at “ideal” altitudes have produced no world class runners.

9. Genetics Mitochondrial DNA Mitochondrial DNA Inherited from mother, so can trace back and create a DNA tree. Inherited from mother, so can trace back and create a DNA tree. Mitochondrial DNA influences aerobic performance. Mitochondrial DNA influences aerobic performance.

10. Mitochondrial DNA-Ethiopians Shows a wide and varied distribution. Shows a wide and varied distribution. Endurance athletes did not differ much from the general population. Endurance athletes did not differ much from the general population. Scott, R. et al. Genetics and the success of East African distance runners. International SportsMed Journal. Vol. 7 No.3 2006

11. Mitochondrial DNA-Ethiopians  “This finding does not support the hypothesis that the Ethiopian population from which the athletes are drawn have remained genetically isolated in East Africa but shows that they have undergone migration events during the age of the species. This is in contrast to the possibility that Ethiopian athletes have maintained and further developed the ancestral endurance phenotype through having remained isolated in the East African highlands” Scott, R. et al. Genetics and the success of East African distance runners. International SportsMed Journal. Vol. 7 No.3 2006

12. Y-Chromosome- Ethiopians Y-chromosome is the male equivalent to the mitochondria DNA. Y-chromosome is the male equivalent to the mitochondria DNA. Found variation between population and elite endurance athletes Found variation between population and elite endurance athletes Scott, R. et al. Genetics and the success of East African distance runners. International SportsMed Journal. Vol. 7 No.3 2006

13. “despite the finding of a potential effect of the Y chromosome on endurance performance, the Y chromosome results show similar levels of diversity to those found using mtDNA. In addition, it can be seen from Figure 3 that a significant number of the athletes trace part of their male ancestry to outside Africa at some time during the age of our species. Studies using non-recombinant markers are concordant in their finding that the elite Ethiopian athletes show similar genetic diversity to the general population, and can trace their ancestry to diverse populations, rather than a uniquely ‘highland African’ population “ “despite the finding of a potential effect of the Y chromosome on endurance performance, the Y chromosome results show similar levels of diversity to those found using mtDNA. In addition, it can be seen from Figure 3 that a significant number of the athletes trace part of their male ancestry to outside Africa at some time during the age of our species. Studies using non-recombinant markers are concordant in their finding that the elite Ethiopian athletes show similar genetic diversity to the general population, and can trace their ancestry to diverse populations, rather than a uniquely ‘highland African’ population “ Scott, R. et al. Genetics and the success of East African distance runners. International SportsMed Journal. Vol. 7 No.3 2006

14. ACE gene Angiotensin converting enzyme Angiotensin converting enzyme One form is associated with endurance performance One form is associated with endurance performance ACE gene- Kenyan Runners ACE gene- Kenyan Runners 29% of controls from Kenya had the gene 29% of controls from Kenya had the gene 17% of international Kenyan athletes had the gene 17% of international Kenyan athletes had the gene Scott RA, Moran C, Wilson RH, et al. No association between Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) gene variation and endurance athlete status in Kenyans. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2005;141(2):169-175.

15. Physiology of African Runners Vo2max Vo2max Lactate Lactate Fractional Utilization of VO2max Fractional Utilization of VO2max Running Economy Running Economy Lower leg thickness Lower leg thickness Muscle Fiber Type Muscle Fiber Type Enzyme concentration Enzyme concentration Capillary Density Capillary Density

16. VO2max VO2max Kenyan Elites- 79.9 Scandinavian elites- 79.2 No difference between kenyan boys and Scandinavian boys Saltin B, Larsen H, Terrados N, et al. Aerobic exercise capacity at sea level and at altitude in Kenyan boys, junior and senior runners compared with Scandinavian runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995;5(4):209-221.

17. Lactate Saltin found Saltin found Lower lactate levels across submax to high intensity velocities. Lower lactate levels across submax to high intensity velocities. Blood Ammonia response after maximal intensity was 1/3 to ½ as high for Kenyan elites compared to Scandinavian elites. Blood Ammonia response after maximal intensity was 1/3 to ½ as high for Kenyan elites compared to Scandinavian elites. Larsen found Larsen found lower blood ammonia concentrations at submaximal intensities for Kenyan boys compared to Danish boys. lower blood ammonia concentrations at submaximal intensities for Kenyan boys compared to Danish boys. Saltin B, Larsen H, Terrados N, et al. Aerobic exercise capacity at sea level and at altitude in Kenyan boys, junior and senior runners compared with Scandinavian runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995;5(4):209-221. -Larsen, H. Kenyan dominance in distance running. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A 136 (2003) 161–170

18. Fractional Utilization of VO2max Ability to use a larger % of VO2max over race distance Ability to use a larger % of VO2max over race distance Kip Keino able to run 10k at 97-98%Vo2max Kip Keino able to run 10k at 97-98%Vo2max Coetzer et al.- compared 10k race pace with VO2 of the athlete running at that pace on treadmill and found that African runners raced 10 km at a higher percentage of their VO2max than white runners. Coetzer et al.- compared 10k race pace with VO2 of the athlete running at that pace on treadmill and found that African runners raced 10 km at a higher percentage of their VO2max than white runners. Larsen, H. Kenyan dominance in distance running. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A 136 (2003) 161–170 BILLAT, V. et al.Training and Bioenergetic Characteristics in Elite Male and Female Kenyan Rusnners. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 297-304. 2003.

19. Running Economy Weston et al. (2000). Running Economy of African and Caucasian Runners. Med. Sci. Sports Exercise. Vol 32. No. 6. pg. 1130-34.

20. Running Economy Other studies showing Running Economy differences Other studies showing Running Economy differences Saltin- Kenyans had better economy than Scandinavian elite runners. Saltin- Kenyans had better economy than Scandinavian elite runners. Larsen- Larsen- untrained Kenyan boys from the Nandi tribe had better running economy than in untrained Danish boys. untrained Kenyan boys from the Nandi tribe had better running economy than in untrained Danish boys. Saltin B, Larsen H, Terrados N, et al. Aerobic exercise capacity at sea level and at altitude in Kenyan boys, junior and senior runners compared with Scandinavian runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995;5(4):209-221. -Larsen, H. Kenyan dominance in distance running. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A 136 (2003) 161–170

21. Reason for difference? Saltin, B. (2003). The Kenya Report. New Studies in Athletics. Vol 18, no.2, pg 15-24.

22. Low mass at extremes Low mass at extremes volume and the mean thickness- 15-17% less for Kenyans volume and the mean thickness- 15-17% less for Kenyans  Body Composition  Kenyan boys were 5cm shorter and 12kg lighter than Danish boys.  Kenyan boys had 2cm longer legs and 1cm longer lower legs.  Saltin conclusion:  “The optimal body shape of a distance runner with respect to running economy is a combination of small height, slender body shape with the legs representing a large fraction of the body height and thin lower legs.”

23. Biomechanics De Heer,H. et al. Anthropometric, gait and strength characteristics of Kenyan distance runners. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2008) 7, 499-504.

24. Muscle Fiber Type Saltin B, Kim CK, Terrados N, et al. Morphology, enzyme activities and buffer capacity in leg muscles of Kenyan and Scandinavian runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995;5(4):222-30.

25. Muscle Fiber Type Quadriceps Femoris Saltin, B. (2003). The Kenya Report. New Studies in Athletics. Vol 18, no.2, pg 15-24.

26. Oxidative Enzyme Concentration CS activity CS activity Positive relationship between CS concentration and running performance Positive relationship between CS concentration and running performance Lower in Kenyans in boys Lower in Kenyans in boys No difference between Kenyan and Scandinavian Elites. No difference between Kenyan and Scandinavian Elites. Saltin, B. (2003). The Kenya Report. New Studies in Athletics. Vol 18, no.2, pg 15-24. Saltin B, Kim CK, Terrados N, et al. Morphology, enzyme activities and buffer capacity in leg muscles of Kenyan and Scandinavian runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995;5(4):222-30.

27. HAD enzyme concentration Saltin, B. (2003). The Kenya Report. New Studies in Athletics. Vol 18, no.2, pg 15-24. HAD enzyme concentration- indicator of ability to utilize fat as fuel.

28. Capillaries Elites Elites Kenyan elites only had a slight tendency for more capillaries. Kenyan elites only had a slight tendency for more capillaries. Untrained Untrained No difference between Danish boys and Kenyan Village boys. No difference between Danish boys and Kenyan Village boys. Saltin, B. (2003). The Kenya Report. New Studies in Athletics. Vol 18, no.2, pg 15-24. Larsen, H. Kenyan dominance in distance running. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A 136 (2003) 161–170

29. Lactate Transporters Compared MCT 1 and MCT 4 concentrations between White and African runners. Compared MCT 1 and MCT 4 concentrations between White and African runners. MCT1- influx of lactate into ST fibers MCT1- influx of lactate into ST fibers MCT4- efflux of lactate out of FT fibers. MCT4- efflux of lactate out of FT fibers. No difference in either. No difference in either. Problem with study- not very fast runners in either group (~34min 10k) Problem with study- not very fast runners in either group (~34min 10k) Harley, Y. et al. Skeletal muscle monocarboxylate transporter content is not different between black and white runners. Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 105:623–632

30. Closer look of Comparison by Saltin et al.

31. Cultural and Social Factors Altitude Altitude Psychological Factors Psychological Factors Diet Diet Money Money Active Lifestyle Active Lifestyle

32. Altitude and Sea level comparison Paul KOSGEI27'44"1427'34" 10sec John KORIR27'44"4427'24"55 20sec Wilberforce TALEL27'46"7027'36"34 10sec ATHLETEPB in altitude (Nairobi, 1750m) PB at Sea-Level Difference 10k Avg. Difference: 13.33sec

33. Altitude and Sea Level comparison NCAA altitude adjustment for 1,700m NCAA altitude adjustment for 1,700m 10k- 10k- 71.58 seconds (for a 28:45 10k) Compared to a difference of 13.33sec for the three 3 Kenyan runners Compared to a difference of 13.33sec for the three 3 Kenyan runners What does this mean? What does this mean? African’s born at altitude can train at much higher intensities compared to western athletes. African’s born at altitude can train at much higher intensities compared to western athletes. Therefore, negative consequences of altitude (decrease cardiac output, vo2max, training velocity, and muscle recruitment) don’t affect them as much. Therefore, negative consequences of altitude (decrease cardiac output, vo2max, training velocity, and muscle recruitment) don’t affect them as much.

34. Altitude NOT the only answer Where are the Nepal and Andean runners? Where are the Nepal and Andean runners? Kayser et al. found that Nepal Sherpas had lower VO2max and mitochondrial density than Caucasian climbers. Kayser et al. found that Nepal Sherpas had lower VO2max and mitochondrial density than Caucasian climbers. Hamilton, B. East African running dominance: what is behind it? Br J Sports Med. 2000 Oct;34(5):391-4.

35. Psychological Factors Stereotype threat Stereotype threat “what we believe to be true about our genetic make up may be more important than what is actually true.” “Regardless of the possible existence of physiological advantages in East African runners, belief that such differences exist creates a psychological atmosphere that can have significant consequences on performance”

36. Psychological Factors Aura of Invincibility Aura of Invincibility Not the first time it has happened in running Not the first time it has happened in running Early 1900’s- Scandinavian Runners won 28 out of 36 possible medals over 5k and 10k in the Olympics. Early 1900’s- Scandinavian Runners won 28 out of 36 possible medals over 5k and 10k in the Olympics. “of all the Kenyan tribes, the Kalenjin had the highest achievement orientation” Hamilton, B. East African running dominance: what is behind it? Br J Sports Med. 2000 Oct;34(5):391-4.

37. Diet Average intake 67% carbohydrate 15% protein 17% fat Fudge, B. et al. Evidence of negative energy balance using doubly labelled water in elite Kenyan endurance runners prior to competition. British Journal of Nutrition. 2006, 95, 59-66.

38. Diet Most were in a negative energy balance Most were in a negative energy balance

39. Money Running is there way out Running is there way out Few job choices Few job choices Ex: Teachers make on average $580 per year Ex: Teachers make on average $580 per year 40% of the total Kenyan population are unemployed at least 50% live below the poverty line. Onywera VO, Scott RA, Boit MK, et al. Demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners. J Sports Sci 2006; 24(4):415-422. Motivation for Running

40. Active Lifestyle ““Kenyans start an official training already from the 85-90% of their top level, white people from 30-50%. (white runners) must spend 10-12 years of his life before reaching the same level that the Kenyan has at his beginning.” Renato Canova ““Kenyans start an official training already from the 85-90% of their top level, white people from 30-50%. (white runners) must spend 10-12 years of his life before reaching the same level that the Kenyan has at his beginning.” Renato Canova

41. Active Lifestyle- Kenyans Onywera VO, Scott RA, Boit MK, et al. Demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners. J Sports Sci 2006; 24(4):415-422.

42. Active Lifestyle-Ethiopians Distance Traveled to School (5-20km is the light black) Method of Transportation Dark black- Transportation Light black- Run Scott RA, Georgiades E, Wilson RH, et al. Demographic characteristics of elite Ethiopian endurance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35(10):1727-1732.

43. Active Lifestyle De Heer,H. et al. Anthropometric, gait and strength characteristics of Kenyan distance runners. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2008) 7, 499-504.

44. Active Lifestyle Could genetics and/or Altitude be clouding the picture? Could genetics and/or Altitude be clouding the picture? The Tribes where the majority of the best runners come from are also happen to be the more rural areas where a more active lifestyle is required. The Tribes where the majority of the best runners come from are also happen to be the more rural areas where a more active lifestyle is required. Hamilton, B. East African running dominance: what is behind it? Br J Sports Med. 2000 Oct;34(5):391-4.

45. Training Trainability Trainability Comparison of Training between Western and African Runners Comparison of Training between Western and African Runners Lactate Response during a Race Lactate Response during a Race

46. Trainability Larsen and Saltin compared trainability of untrained kids to see if African response to training was more. Larsen and Saltin compared trainability of untrained kids to see if African response to training was more. Both groups did the same training for 12 weeks Both groups did the same training for 12 weeks Larsen, H.B. et al. Training response of adolescent Kenyan town and village boys to endurance running. Scandinanivan Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports. In press, 2003. Saltin, B. (2003). The Kenya Report. New Studies in Athletics. Vol 18, no.2, pg 15-24.

47. Trainability of kids CS activity CS activity No difference between Kenyan Village boys and Danish kids No difference between Kenyan Village boys and Danish kids HAD activity HAD activity No difference between Kenyan Village boys and Danish kids No difference between Kenyan Village boys and Danish kids Blood Lactate Blood Lactate Kenyan Village boys had initial lower lactate levels (due to better running economy) but training decreased lactate levels to the same extent as Danish kids. Kenyan Village boys had initial lower lactate levels (due to better running economy) but training decreased lactate levels to the same extent as Danish kids. Saltin, B. (2003). The Kenya Report. New Studies in Athletics. Vol 18, no.2, pg 15-24. Larsen, H.B. et al. Training response of adolescent Kenyan town and village boys to endurance running. Scandinanivan Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports. In press, 2003.

48. Trainability of kids Performance Performance Who knows… Who knows… They only measured 5k performance POST training. They only measured 5k performance POST training. “Kenyan boys from the rural area having the same initial fitness level (maximal oxygen uptake) as Danish boys ran 10% faster in a 5000 metres competition after performing 12 weeks of standardised training. It is noteworthy, that this is true even though the Kenyans were running at 2000m above sea level.” “Kenyan boys from the rural area having the same initial fitness level (maximal oxygen uptake) as Danish boys ran 10% faster in a 5000 metres competition after performing 12 weeks of standardised training. It is noteworthy, that this is true even though the Kenyans were running at 2000m above sea level.” VO2max does NOT equal fitness level. VO2max does NOT equal fitness level.

49. Comparison of Elite Training Berg Berg “The dominance of African runners in the last 2 decades may provide valuable insight into the training process. Their training appears to be relatively uncomplicated. In essence, intensity is emphasised over volume.” “In contrast, in the author’s opinion, training in western countries appears to be guided by a ‘more is better’ philosophy which necessitates limiting intensity.” Berg, K. Endurance Training and Performance in Runners Sports Med 2003; 33 (1): 59-73

50. Comparison of Training 150km10km 6.67% 7.2km 4.8% 3.5km 2.3% Kenyan Training My Training1304km 3% 0 0% 12km 9.2% Now College BILLAT, V. et al.Training and Bioenergetic Characteristics in Elite Male and Female Kenyan Rusnners. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 297-304. 2003.

51. Moses Mosop Training before World Cross Country Championships Monthly AnalysisNovemberDecemberJanuaryFebruary Km/ number % of total Km/ number % of total Km/ number % of total Km/ number % of total Running Sessions (number) 51543548 Days (number) 3031 28 Total Mileage 856915625809.5 Weekly mileage (in Km) 199.7206.6141.1202.4 Source: Renato Canova

52. Moses Mosop Regeneration Mileage (< 6:10/mi) 381 44.51 %432 47.21 %420.5 67.28 %444 54.85 % Basic Aerobic Mileage (6:10/mi ><5:30) 256 29.91 %297.5 32.51 %123 19.68 %212.5 26.25 % Aerobic Endurance Mileage (5:30-4:50) 137 16.00 %112 12.24 %193.04%759.26% Aerobic Power Mileage (4:50- 4:25) 677.83%68.57.49%51.88.29%65.58.09% Specific Speed Endurance Mileage (4:25-0) 111.29% 0 0.00% 9.3 1.49% 12.5 1.54% Speed (faster than 15” per 100m) 10.12%10.11%1.40.22%00.00% Short Length Hills (60m >< 150m) 10.12%00.00%0 0 Medium Length Hills (200m >< 300m) 20.23%40.44%00.00%0 Sessions for Strength (number) 3400 Monthly AnalysisNovemberDecember Januar y Februar y Km%totalKm%totalKm% totalKm%total

53. Lactate Response MaxLASS-Maximum Lactate Steady State MaxLASS-Maximum Lactate Steady State Fastest speed at which lactate production=lactate elimination Fastest speed at which lactate production=lactate elimination Conventional Physiology has this equal to about the pace you could run for a 1hr race. Conventional Physiology has this equal to about the pace you could run for a 1hr race. “My cursory analysis suggests that their ability to increase their pace in the last 10- 20% of a race distinguishes the world's best runners.” Tim Noakes “My cursory analysis suggests that their ability to increase their pace in the last 10- 20% of a race distinguishes the world's best runners.” Tim Noakes

54. MaxLass 8.7 mmol 9.0 mmol 9.3 mmol 10.8 mmol 20.6 mmol James Kwalia James Kwalia Simulated 5k Simulated 5k 4x1200m in 3:09 w/ 1min rest 4x1200m in 3:09 w/ 1min rest Then, 800m max (1:54.2) Then, 800m max (1:54.2) Nicholas Kemboi Nicholas Kemboi Simulated 10k Simulated 10k 5x2000m at 27:00 10k pace w/ 1min rest 5x2000m at 27:00 10k pace w/ 1min rest Then, 1200m max (3:01) Then, 1200m max (3:01) 5.4 mmol 7.4 mmol 7.7 mmol 8.4 mmol 9.7mmol 16.6 mmol 6.5 mmol 8.0 mmol 8.3 mmol 8.8 mmol 10.2 mmol Saaeed Saif Shaheen Saaeed Saif Shaheen Simulated 5k Simulated 5k 5x1000m at 13:10 5k pace w/ 1min rest 5x1000m at 13:10 5k pace w/ 1min rest Source: Renato Canova

55. What does this all mean? Scott, et al: Scott, et al: “ Few other regions of the world have such high levels of childhood physical activity combined with such cultural/financial importance being placed on distance running. This information clearly implicates environmental factors as being more influential than genetic factors in the success of East African distance runners. In an economically deprived region such as East Africa, economic factors also provide an additional motivation, if not a necessity, to succeed in distance running. In summary, it is unjustified at present to regard the phenomenon of East African running success as genetically mediated; to justify doing so one must identify the genes that are important. To do so also disregards the intense training regimens for which East African athletes are famous.” “ Few other regions of the world have such high levels of childhood physical activity combined with such cultural/financial importance being placed on distance running. This information clearly implicates environmental factors as being more influential than genetic factors in the success of East African distance runners. In an economically deprived region such as East Africa, economic factors also provide an additional motivation, if not a necessity, to succeed in distance running. In summary, it is unjustified at present to regard the phenomenon of East African running success as genetically mediated; to justify doing so one must identify the genes that are important. To do so also disregards the intense training regimens for which East African athletes are famous.”

56. What does this all mean? “...record breaking in distance running has come from very small areas of the world...New Zealand; Australia; England; a small part of the African continent...and maybe Finland. These countries have produced the record breakers and yet none of the areas are the same...Why such a small area of the world has prolifically produced world record holders, I don’t know.” Ron Clarke Hamilton, B. East African running dominance: what is behind it? Br J Sports Med. 2000 Oct;34(5):391-4.

57. References Saltin, B. (2003). The Kenya Report. New Studies in Athletics. Vol 18, no.2, pg 15-24. Harley, Y. et al. Skeletal muscle monocarboxylate transporter content is not different between black and white runners. Eur J Appl Physiol (2009) 105:623–632 Larsen, H.B. et al. Training response of adolescent Kenyan town and village boys to endurance running. Scandinanivan Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports. In press, 2003. Onywera VO, Scott RA, Boit MK, et al. Demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners. J Sports Sci 2006; 24(4):415- 422. Scott RA, Georgiades E, Wilson RH, et al. Demographic characteristics of elite Ethiopian endurance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35(10):1727-1732. Scott, R. et al. Genetics and the success of East African distance runners. International SportsMed Journal. Vol. 7 No.3 2006 http://www.fims.org/default.asp?pageID=782860264 http://www.fims.org/default.asp?pageID=782860264 Saltin B, Larsen H, Terrados N, et al. Aerobic exercise capacity at sea level and at altitude in Kenyan boys, junior and senior runners compared with Scandinavian runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995;5(4):209-221. Saltin B, Kim CK, Terrados N, et al. Morphology, enzyme activities and buffer capacity in leg muscles of Kenyan and Scandinavian runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1995;5(4):222-30. Larsen, H. Kenyan dominance in distance running. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A 136 (2003) 161–170 Weston, A. et al. African runners exhibit greater fatigue resistance, lower lactate accumulation, and higher oxidative enzyme activity. J Appl Physiol 86:915-923, 1999. BILLAT, V. et al.Training and Bioenergetic Characteristics in Elite Male and Female Kenyan Rusnners. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 297-304. 2003. Scott RA, Moran C, Wilson RH, et al. No association between Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) gene variation and endurance athlete status in Kenyans. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2005;141(2):169-175. De Heer,H. et al. Anthropometric, gait and strength characteristics of Kenyan distance runners. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine (2008) 7, 499-504. Fudge, B. et al. Evidence of negative energy balance using doubly labelled water in elite Kenyan endurance runners prior to competition. British Journal of Nutrition. 2006, 95, 59-66. Hamilton, B. East African running dominance: what is behind it? Br J Sports Med. 2000 Oct;34(5):391-4. Berg, K. Endurance Training and Performance in Runners Sports Med 2003; 33 (1): 59-73