1. GENETICS
Cells and Heredity

2. CELL THEORY All organisms are made of one or more cells.
The cell is the basic unit of all living things.
All cells come from existing cells.

3. CELL SIZE
Large cells
Chicken egg – doesn’t need to take in more nutrients.
Small cells
Most cells are small because they need to take in nutrients and get rid of wastes. Volume of cell cannot be too large because the surface area will not be able to take in enough nutrients and expel waste fast enough.

4. SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO8

6. EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Cell Wall – a rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane and provides support to the cell
Cell membrane - protective layer that covers the cell’s surface and acts as a barrier to the outside environment. It also controls what goes in and comes out. Contains lipids (fat and cholesterol), proteins and phospholipids.

7. Cytoplasm – the fluid inside the cell
Cytoskeleton – a web of proteins in the cytoplasm. Acts as a muscle and a skeleton. It helps some cells to move.

8. PARTS OF A CELL
Organelles – structures that perform specific functions within the cell

9. NUCLEUS
DNA – (deoxyribonucleic acid) genetic material that carries information needed to make new cells and new organisms; it is also passed on from parent cells to new cells and controls activities of the cell
Nucleus – DNA is enclosed inside this organelle, it contains the genetic material to make cell proteins

10. NUCLEUS

11. NUCLEUS
Nucleolus – a dark area inside the nucleus that stores materials that will be used to make ribosomes
Ribosomes – organelles that make proteins; it is the smallest of all organelles. Proteins and RNA are made in the ribosomes (protein synthesis)
Amino acids – building blocks of proteins; there are about 20 amino acids

12. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – a system of folded membranes in which proteins, lipids, and other materials are made.
Substances move through these passageways to get to other cell parts
Most chemical reactions occur here
Rough ER – covered in ribosomes and near the nucleus
Smooth ER – no ribosomes, makes lipids and breaks down toxic materials that could damage the cell

14. MITOCHONDRIA Main power source of the cell
Sugar is broken down to produce energy
Energy release is stored as ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
ATP is made in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
Have their own DNA

16. CHLOROPLASTS Found in plants and algae Photosynthesis takes place here
Have 2 membranes and their own DNA
Contain chlorophyll (a green pigment)
Chlorophyll traps energy of sunlight and uses it to make sugar
The sugar is then used by mitochondria to make ATP

18. GOLGI COMPLEX Packages and distributes proteins Looks like ER
Lipids and proteins from ER are delivered to Golgi complex
Lipids and proteins are modified to do different jobs
They are then packaged and pinched off to form a small bubble
Bubbles get transported to other parts of the cell

21. VESICLES
Vesicle – small sac that surrounds material to be moved into or out of the cell.
Vesicles carry new protein from ER to Golgi complex

22. LYSOSOMES Vesicles that are responsible for digestion inside a cell
Contains digestive enzymes
Destroys worn out cell parts, get rid of wastes and protect cell from foreign invaders

23. VACUOLES A large vesicle Stores water
Large in plants (if vacuoles lose water, the plant wilts)

24. ORGANIZATION OF LIVING THINGS
Cell – (unicellular and multicellular)
Tissue – group of cells that work together to perform a specific job (nerve tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue and protective tissue)
Organ – two or more groups of tissues working together to perform a function
Organ system – a group of organs that work together to perform a function
Organism – a living thing; anything that can carry out life processes independently

25. LEVELS OF CELLULAR ORGANIZATION

26. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Structure - the arrangement of parts in an organism
Function – the special, normal, or proper activity of an organ or part

27. DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS
Diffusion – the movement of particles from regions of higher density to regions of lower density
Osmosis – the diffusion of water through a semipermeable (certain substances can pass through) membrane

30. Passive transport – the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell
Active transport – the movement of substances across the cell membrane that requires the cell to use energy
Endocytosis – the process by which a cell membrane surrounds a particle and encloses the particle in a vesicle to bring the particle into the cell
Exocytosis – the process in which a cell releases a particle by enclosing the particle in a vesicle that then moves to the cell surface and fuses with the cell membrane and releases it to the outside

33. CELL ENERGY
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to make food.
Pigment – molecules that absorb light energy.
Chlorophyll is the main pigment that gives the plant its color.

35. PHOTOSYNTHESIS

37. Cellular Respiration
The process by which cells use oxygen to produce energy from food
Takes place in the mitochondria

39. FERMENTATION
The breakdown of food without the use of oxygen

41. CELL CYCLE Cell cycle – the life cycle of a cell
DNA – (deoxyribonucleic acid) – the hereditary material of that controls all cell activities, including making new cells.
Chromosomes – where DNA of a cell is organized; chromosomes are copied to ensure that each new cell is exactly the same as the parent cell

42. PROKARYOTIC CELLS Includes bacteria Have ribosomes and a
single DNA molecule
Divides by binary fission
(splitting into 2 parts)

43. EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Homologous chromosomes – chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes and the same structure
Mitosis – in eukaryotic cells, a process of cell division that forms two new nuclei, each of which has the same number of chromosomes

46. MITOSIS
Interphase – the cell grows and copies its organelles and chromosomes
These copies are called chromatids
Chromatids are held together by a centromere

47. 1.)Prophase – mitosis begins, nuclear membrane dissolves and chromosomes condense into rod-like structures, centrioles begins to migrate to opposite ends

48. 2.) metaphase
The chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell. Homologous chromosomes pair up.

49. 3.) Anaphase
The chromatids separate and move to opposite sides of the cell

50. 4.) Telophase
Last stage of mitosis, a nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes, and the chromosomes unwind.

51. Cytokinesis The division of the cytoplasm of a cell
Cell pinches off into two

53. HEREDITY! Gregor Mendel - born in 1822, in Heinzendorf, Austria
he discovered the principles of heredity while he was in the garden
Heredity – the passing of genetic traits from parent to off-spring

54. SELF-POLLINATING PEAS
Self-pollination - Has both male and female reproductive structures so it can pollinate itself
True-breeding – all off-springs will have the same traits
Cross-pollination – when pollen from one plant will fertilize the ovule of a flower on a different plant (can occur by wind or insects).

55. Characteristics – a feature that has different forms in a population
Characteristics – a feature that has different forms in a population. (ex-hair color)
Traits – different forms of a characteristic (ex-brown hair)
Dominant traits – the trait observed in the first generation when parents that have different traits are bred
Recessive traits – a trait that reappears in the second generation after disappearing in the first generation when parents with different traits are bred

58. FIRST GENERATION

60. SECOND GENERATION

63. RATIO
A relationship between two different numbers that is often expressed as a fraction

66. TRAITS and INHERITANCE
Genes – one set of instructions for an inherited trait
Alleles- one of the alternative forms of a gene that governs a characteristic such as hair color
Phenotype-an organism’s appearance or other detectable characteristic
Genotype – the entire genetic makeup of an organism; also the combination of genes for one or more specific traits

67. Homozygous –a plant or organism with 2 dominate alleles or 2 recessive alleles
Heterozygous – A plant or organism that has one dominate allele and one recessive allele
Punnett squares – use to organize all possible combinations of offspring from particular parents

69. Probability – the likelihood that a possible future event will occur in any given instance of the event
Incomplete dominance – one trait is not completely dominant over another, so these traits blend

70. 2 Ways to Reproduce
Asexual reproduction – results in offspring with genotypes that are exact copies of their parent’s genotype; only one parent cell is needed (mitosis); most cells in your body reproduce this way
Sexual reproduction – offspring that share traits with their parents but are not exactly like their parents; two parent cells (sex cells) join together to form offspring that are different from both parents

71. MEIOSIS Human sex cells have 23 chromosomes (body cells have 46)
Homologous chromosomes – chromosomes that have the same sequence of genes and the same structure
Meiosis – a process in cell division which the number of chromosomes decreases to half the original number by two divisions of the nucleus, which results in the production of sex cells

72. GENES ARE ON CHROMOSOMES!!

73. MEIOSIS

76. MEIOSIS

78. SEX CHROMOSOME
One of the pair of chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual
FEMALES – XX
MALES – XY
X = (girl)
Y = (boy)
Who determines the sex of the baby?
MALES!!!