1. Artistic Depictions of Hindu Goddesses

2. 1. Icons from the Ancient & Medieval Periods Archeological clues suggest that female deities of various types have been venerated in Indian culture since very ancient times; the clearest examples are found in the early Buddhist period, dating from the centuries just before & after the common era. (This fits with literary evidence of the even earlier Vedic period, which reveals interest in female deities on the part of ancient brahmans.) In the 5th century CE, however, we find the first expression of the idea that there is one supreme goddess or Shakti, whose power and divine status are actually greater than that of the male powers. The Devi Mahatmya describes the great acts of this goddess, named Durgaa (“impenetrable one”), as well as her terrifying emanation Kaalee (“dark one”); and in subsequent centuries we find more & more stone icons depicting them both. The icons in this section, drawn from the different periods mentioned above, are generally found on the outside of monuments or temples dedicated to worship of the male deities & saints.

3. goddess surrounded by elephants (2nd BCE, west Central India)

4. goddess or nature spirit? (2nd BCE Bengal)

5. nature spirit on Buddhist monument (1st CE, southeast India)

6. nature spirit on Buddhist temple (Central India)

7. basic layout for both Hindu & Buddhist temples (2nd CE & later)

8. river goddess Yamuna (5th CE, Central India)

9. serpent queen (11th CE, east Central India)

10. Brahma’s Consort (9th CE, South India)

11. Durgaa on Tiger (14th CE, southwest India)

12. Kaalee (10th CE, South India)

13. Shiva linga & footprints of Vishnu (10th CE? Rajasthan)

14. 2. Late Islamic & British Influence on Indian Architecture In order to get a more vivid sense of the wider historical context for depictions of goddesses (Durgaa & Kaalee in particular) during the colonial period, it is helpful to see a few examples of the architecture & decorative art that were being sponsored by the British in the major urban Indian centers of that time. Although British governors stripped Muslim rulers of any real power, they for the most part kept Indian royalty, known as Maharajas (“great kings,” either those they had conquered, or others they installed), in place as ceremonial figures. Many of the structures commissioned by such rulers, with the support of the British, were palatial residences & monuments dedicated to fostering the impression that India’s former glory was being preserved intact. Interestingly, though, such buildings were significantly influenced by European architectural styles, and sometimes built out of actual materials imported from Europe.

15. triumphal gate (18th CE, southeast India)

16. Maharaja’s palace (19th CE central South India)

17. botanical gardens (19th CE? central South India)

18. acrobats & circus performers-- city buildings in the background (late 18th CE, northwest India)

19. 3. Goddesses in Manuscript Painting & Popular Arts The colonial period whose architecture is featured in the previous section saw the proliferation of illuminated manuscripts of the Devi Mahatmya. The style of the illustrations in such manuscripts matched closely the style & coloring developed in earlier periods by both Muslim & Hindu painters (see section 2 of the previous slide show, and also IAR, 59,60, & 73). Yet the depiction of the Durgaa & Kaalee’s bloody rampages in such manuscripts contrast strikingly with the neat images of courtly life that are often the subject of earlier paintings: Devi Mahatmya painters clearly intend to show these goddesses intimately linked with the horrific (and in some cases sexual) aspects of human life. Popular arts on the other hand, a few contemporary examples of which are shown in the second part of this final section, honor in more abstract form the presence of goddesses closely associated with domestic abundance. Such symmetric, aniconic patterns are integral to the daily life of ordinary housewives adorning their bodies & homes. Interestingly, though, Shakta theologians who commented on the Devi Mahatmya used similarly patterns to revere Kaalee & Durgaa in their rituals.

20. Durgaa slaying the buffalo demon (18th CE, manuscript)

21. Kaalee on slain demon’s head (undated)

22. folk theatre Kaalee/Durgaa Mask (late 19th CE, South India)

23. Kaalee standing over Shiva (19th CE, manuscript)

24. sari cloth wrap (19th CE, north Central India)

25. entryway decorations (southwest India)

26. festive doorway (southwest India)