1. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Development of music perception Dowling, W.J. (1999). Development of music perception and cognition. In Deutsch, D. The Psychology of Music, Chapter 15.

2. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 A. Infancy 1.Prenatal experience 2.Perceptual grouping 3.Pitch 4.Melodic pitch patterns 5.Rhythm

3. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Prenatal experience  Even before birth, the infant appears to music, or at least to patterns of auditory stimulation.  Very young infants recognize their mother's voice, and this may derive from neonatal experience with the mother's characteristic patterns of pitch and stress accents.

4. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Perceptual grouping  Auditory stream segregation (2 pitch alternating rapidly)  Experiment: AAAEEE ( 440Hz, 660 Hz)  Temporal gaps:  AAAE EEE noticed  AAA EEE not noticed  Explanation: An additional gap separating patterns that were already perceptually separate was simply lost in processing (as it tends to be with adults)

5. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Pitch  Octave equivalence  Pitch constancy  Pitch discrimination

6. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Melodic pitch patterns

7. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Similarities between infants and adults  easily notice differences in melodic contours  memory for melodies  notice changes in intervals and pitch levels of melodies  find changes of melodic contour more salient

8. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Differences between infants and adults in the processing of pitch information in melodies arise from the acculturation of the adults in the tonal scale system of a particular culture

9. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Constraints  main: octave equivalence  weaker: importance given to the perfect fifth, coupled with a limit of seven or so pitch classes within the octave (G. Miller (1956), The magical number seven)

10. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 On the inherent importance of the perfect fifth  Detecting changes of single pitches with 9- to 11-month-olds (conditioned head turning)  C-E-G-E-C  C-E-G#-E-C  Result: No difference  Children 4 and 6 years of age did show a difference favoring the diatonic scale  The acculturation in the tonal structure system is already well begun by that age.

11. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005  More complicated material: The melody was transposed to a new pitch with each repetition  7- to 11-month-olds: changes in C-E-G-E-C easier to detect  6-month-olds: no difference

12. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005  Non-Western pattern: a Javanese pélog scale pattern does not contain a perfect fifth, and some of the pitches lie approximated quarter steps in between the semitones on the piano  The 6-month-olds (equally good for diatonic and nondiatonic Western patterns, see above) decreased to chance levels for the Javanese pattern: acculturated at the level of Western tonal material, or something about scale structures constructed with a logarithmic modulus such as the semitone?

13. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Rhythm  Temporal grouping of tone sequences is much like that of adults

14. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 B. Childhood 1.Singing 2.Absolute pitch 3.Melodic contour and tonality 4.Rhythm 5.Emotion

15. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Singing  9 – 12 months: spontaneously singing  vocal play over the child's entire pitch range  patterns of vowel sounds  18 months: generating recognizable, repeatable songs  24 months: brief phrases repeated over and over; contours are replicable, but pitch wanders; same melodic and rhythmic contour is repeated at different pitch levels; rhythm of phrases is coherent, with rhythms often those of speech patterns; accents within phrases and the timing of the phrases themselves is determined by a regular beat pattern; Lack stable pitch framework (scale) and use very limited set phrase contours in one song – just one or two

16. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005  36 months: pitch still wanders but is locally stable within one phrase  4-year-olds: stick to stable scale pattern within a phrase but would often slip to a new key for the next phrase (as 3-year-olds in the example)  5-year-olds: can hold a stable tonality throughout the song

17. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Absolute pitch  Absolute pitch is the ability to identify pitches by their note names even in the absence of musical context.  Absolute pitch is typically quite rare even among musicians, occurring in only about 4 – 8%  Cultures where early music training is encouraged, such as in present-Japan, the incidence of absolute pitch among the musically trained is possibly near 50%.

18. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005  "Early learning" hypothesis: absolute pitch can be acquired by anyone, but only during a critical period ending in the fifth or sixth year

19. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Melody contour and tonality  4- to 6-year olds:  discriminating melodies on the basis of contours  recognizing same-contour imitations of familiar melodies  same-contour imitations are seen as versions of the tune  First graders have trouble to describe pitch direction

20. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005  Memory for tone sequences (3,4,6 notes)  On each trail, a standard melody was followed by a comparison melody in which one note of the standard had been changed by 1 or 2 semitones.  Task: the subject had to say which of the notes had been changed

21. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005  5-year-olds: chance level with both tonal and atonal stimuli  6-to 10-year-olds: results for tonal and atonal sequences diverged, with better performance on tonal sequences  12-year-olds: processing on atonal sequences caught up. For 4- and 6-tone sequences, the same pattern appeared, but the tonal-atonal difference remained until adulthood.

22. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Rhythm 1.Development of the ability to control attention in relation to the temporal sequence of events ("Hidden melodies") 2.Development of the ability to remember and produce rhythmic patterns

23. A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005 Emotion  4-year-olds: above chance level in assigning one of four affective labels (happy, sad, angry, afraid, using schematic faces)  8-year-olds and adults, but not 5-year-olds, applied "happy" and "sad" consistently to excerpts in the major and minor, respectively  Only adults consistently chose "happy" for ascending contours and "sad" for descending.