1. Atomic Theory

2. Defining the Atom
The Greek philosopher Democritus (460 B.C. – 370 B.C.) was among the first to suggest the existence of atoms (from the Greek word “atomos”)
He believed that atoms were indivisible and indestructible
His ideas did agree with later scientific theory, but did not explain chemical behavior, and was not based on the scientific method – but just philosophy

3. Dalton’s Atomic Theory (experiment based!)
All elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms
Atoms of the same element are identical. Atoms of any one element are different from those of any other element.
John Dalton
(1766 – 1844)
Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged – but never changed into atoms of another element.

4. Sizing up the Atom
Elements are able to be subdivided into smaller and smaller particles – these are the atoms, and they still have properties of that element
If you could line up 100,000,000 copper atoms in a single file, they would be approximately 1 cm long
Despite their small size, individual atoms are observable with instruments such as scanning tunneling (electron) microscopes

5. Structure of the Nuclear Atom
One change to Dalton’s atomic theory is that atoms are divisible into subatomic particles:
Electrons, protons, and neutrons are examples of these fundamental particles
There are many other types of particles, but we will study these three

6. Discovery of the Electron
In 1897, J.J. Thomson used a cathode ray tube to deduce the presence of a negatively charged particle: the electron

7. Thomson’s Atomic Model
J. J. Thomson
Thomson believed that the electrons were like plums embedded in a positively charged “pudding,” thus it was called the “plum pudding” model.

8. Modern Cathode Ray Tubes
Television
Computer Monitor
Cathode ray tubes pass electricity through a gas that is contained at a very low pressure.

9. Mass of the Electron The oil drop apparatus
Mass of the electron is
9.11 x g
The oil drop apparatus
1916 – Robert Millikan determines the mass of the electron: 1/1840 the mass of a hydrogen atom; has one unit of negative charge

10. Conclusions from the Study of the Electron:
Cathode rays have identical properties regardless of the element used to produce them. All elements must contain identically charged electrons.
Atoms are neutral, so there must be positive particles in the atom to balance the negative charge of the electrons
Electrons have so little mass that atoms must contain other particles that account for most of the mass

11. Conclusions from the Study of the Electron:
Eugen Goldstein in 1886 observed what is now called the “proton” - particles with a positive charge, and a relative mass of 1 (or 1840 times that of an electron)
1932 – James Chadwick confirmed the existence of the “neutron” – a particle with no charge, but a mass nearly equal to a proton

12. Subatomic Particles Particle Charge Mass (g) Location Electron (e-) -1
9.11 x 10-28
Electron cloud
Proton (p+) +1
1.67 x 10-24
Nucleus
Neutron
(no)

13. Ernest Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment - 1911
Alpha particles are helium nuclei - The alpha particles were fired at a thin sheet of gold foil
Particles that hit on the detecting screen (film) are recorded

14. Rutherford’s problem:
In the following pictures, there is a target hidden by a cloud. To figure out the shape of the target, we shot some beams into the cloud and recorded where the beams came out. Can you figure out the shape of the target?
Target #2
Target #1

15. The Answers:
Target #1
Target #2

16. Rutherford’s Findings
Most of the particles passed right through
A few particles were deflected
VERY FEW were greatly deflected
“Like howitzer shells bouncing off of tissue paper!”
Conclusions:
The nucleus is small
The nucleus is dense
The nucleus is positively charged

17. The Rutherford Atomic Model
Based on his experimental evidence:
The atom is mostly empty space
All the positive charge, and almost all the mass is concentrated in a small area in the center. He called this a “nucleus”
The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons (they make the nucleus!)
The electrons distributed around the nucleus, and occupy most of the volume
His model was called a “nuclear model”

18. Bohr Model
In 1913, the Danish scientist Niels Bohr proposed an improvement. In his model, he placed each electron in a specific energy level.

19. Bohr Model
According to Bohr’s atomic model, electrons move in definite orbits around the nucleus, much like planets circle the sun. These orbits, or energy levels, are located at certain distances from the nucleus.

20. Wave Model

21. The Wave Model
Today’s atomic model is based on the principles of wave mechanics.
According to the theory of wave mechanics, electrons do not move about an atom in a definite path, like the planets around the sun.

22. The Wave Model
In fact, it is impossible to determine the exact location of an electron. The probable location of an electron is based on how much energy the electron has.
According to the modern atomic model, at atom has a small positively charged nucleus surrounded by a large region in which there are enough electrons to make an atom neutral.

23. Electron Cloud A space in which electrons are likely to be found.
Electrons whirl about the nucleus billions of times in one second
They are not moving around in random patterns.
Location of electrons depends upon how much energy the electron has.

24. Electron Cloud
Depending on their energy they are locked into a certain area in the cloud.
Electrons with the lowest energy are found in the energy level closest to the nucleus
Electrons with the highest energy are found in the outermost energy levels, farther from the nucleus.

25. Greek X Dalton Thomson Rutherford Bohr Wave Indivisible Electron
Nucleus
Orbit
Electron Cloud
Greek X
Dalton
Thomson
Rutherford
Bohr
Wave

26. Atomic Structure

27. The Atom An atom consists of: nucleus – contains protons and neutrons
electrons in space around the nucleus.
The atom is mostly empty space
Electron cloud
Nucleus

28. ATOMIC COMPOSITION Protons (p+) Electrons (e-) Neutrons (no)
+ electrical charge
mass = x g
relative mass = atomic mass units (amu) but we can round to 1
Electrons (e-)
negative electrical charge
relative mass = amu but we can round to 0
Neutrons (no)
no electrical charge
mass = amu but we can round to 1

29. Atomic Number, Z
All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons in the nucleus, Z 13
Atomic number Al
Atom symbol
26.981
AVERAGE Atomic Mass

30. Atomic Number
Atoms are composed of identical protons, neutrons, and electrons
How then are atoms of one element different from another element?
Elements are different because they contain different numbers of PROTONS
The “atomic number” of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus
# protons in an atom = # electrons

31. Atomic Number Element # of protons Atomic # (Z) Carbon 6 Phosphorus 15
Gold 79

32. Mass Number, A
A carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons is the mass standard = 12 atomic mass units
Mass Number (A) = # protons + # neutrons
NOT on the periodic table…(Round the AVERAGE atomic mass on the table)
A boron atom can have A = 5 p n = 10 amu

33. Mass Number
Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an isotope:
Mass # = p+ + n0
Nuclide p+ n0 e-
Mass #
Oxygen - 10 - 33 42
- 31 15 18 8 8 18
Arsenic 75 33 75
Phosphorus 16 15 31

34. Complete Symbols
Contain the symbol of the element, the mass number and the atomic number.
Mass
number X
Superscript →
Atomic
number
Subscript →

35. Br Symbols 80 35 Find each of these: number of protons
number of neutrons
number of electrons
Atomic number
Mass Number 80 Br 35

36. Symbols
If an element has an atomic number of 34 and a mass number of 78, what is the:
number of protons
number of neutrons
number of electrons
complete symbol

37. Symbols
If an element has 91 protons and 140 neutrons what is the
Atomic number
Mass number
number of electrons
complete symbol

38. Symbols
If an element has 78 electrons and 117 neutrons what is the
Atomic number
Mass number
number of protons
complete symbol

39. Isotopes

40. Isotopes
Dalton was wrong about all elements of the same type being identical
Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons.
Thus, different mass numbers.
These are called isotopes.

41. Isotopes
Frederick Soddy ( ) proposed the idea of isotopes in 1912
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having different masses, due to varying numbers of neutrons.
Soddy won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1921 for his work with isotopes and radioactive materials.

42. We can also put the mass number after the name of the element:
Naming Isotopes
We can also put the mass number after the name of the element:
carbon-12
carbon-14
uranium-235

43. Isotopes are atoms of the same element having different masses, due to varying numbers of neutrons.
Protons
Electrons
Neutrons
Nucleus
Hydrogen–1
(protium) 1
Hydrogen-2
(deuterium)
Hydrogen-3
(tritium) 2

44. Isotopes Elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons.

45. Isotopes & Their Uses
Bone scans with radioactive technetium-99.

46. Isotopes & Their Uses
The tritium content of ground water is used to discover the source of the water, for example, in municipal water or the source of the steam from a volcano.

47. Atomic Mass How heavy is an atom of oxygen?
It depends, because there are different kinds of oxygen atoms.
We are more concerned with the average atomic mass.
This is based on the abundance (percentage) of each variety of that element in nature.
We don’t use grams for this mass because the numbers would be too small.

48. Measuring Atomic Mass
Instead of grams, the unit we use is the Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
It is defined as one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
Carbon-12 chosen because of its isotope purity.
Each isotope has its own atomic mass, thus we determine the average from percent abundance.

49. To calculate the average:
Multiply the atomic mass of each isotope by it’s abundance (expressed as a decimal), then add the results.
If not told otherwise, the mass of the isotope is expressed in atomic mass units (amu)

50. Composition of the nucleus
Atomic Masses
Atomic mass is the average of all the naturally occurring isotopes of that element.
Isotope
Symbol
Composition of the nucleus
% in nature
Carbon-12
12C
6 protons
6 neutrons
98.89%
Carbon-13
13C
7 neutrons
1.11%
Carbon-14
14C
8 neutrons
<0.01%
Carbon =

51. Average Atomic Mass Avg. Atomic Mass weighted average of all isotopes
on the Periodic Table
round to 2 decimal places
Avg.
Atomic
Mass

52. D. Average Atomic Mass
EX: Calculate the avg. atomic mass of oxygen if its abundance in nature is 99.76% 16O, 0.04% 17O, and 0.20% 18O.
Avg.
Atomic
Mass
16.00
amu

53. D. Average Atomic Mass
EX: Find chlorine’s average atomic mass if approximately 8 of every 10 atoms are chlorine-35 and 2 are chlorine-37.
Avg.
Atomic
Mass
35.40 amu

54. IONS
IONS are atoms or groups of atoms with a positive or negative charge.
Taking away an electron from an atom gives a CATION with a positive charge
Adding an electron to an atom gives an ANION with a negative charge.

55. Forming Cations & Anions
A CATION forms when an atom loses one or more electrons.
An ANION forms when an atom gains one or more electrons
F + e- --> F-
Mg --> Mg e-

56. To tell the difference between an atom and an ion, look to see if there is a charge in the superscript!
Examples: Na+ Ca+2 I- O-2
Na Ca I O

57. PREDICTING ION CHARGES
In general
metals (Mg) lose electrons ---> cations
nonmetals (F) gain electrons ---> anions