1. MACROEVOLUTION AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES

2. Origin of Species
A species is a group of organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring together in nature.
For a new species to arise, some members of a species must become reproductively isolated from the rest of the species. This means they can no longer interbreed with other members of the species. How does this happen? Usually they become geographically isolated first.
The macroevolution of a species happens as a result of speciation.
Speciation is the branching off of individuals from the species they originally were. Over time, as natural selection occurs, individuals may build up adaptations that are no longer compatible with others in their species. This is most often due to geographic isolation or reproductive isolation from other individuals within the species.
Once the DNA is different enough, or they are no longer able to interbreed, they are now a different species that has branched off from the main species.
How quickly does this process happen? If evolution for most species takes a very long time, it would be logical to think the same would happen for speciation. However, there are two major accepted different hypotheses on the pace of evolution due to speciation. Arguments for both hypotheses are sound and there has been no evidence found so far to disprove either one.

3. Reproductive Isolation
Types of Speciation
Geographic Isolation
Reproductive Isolation
Parapatric Speciation
populations are not isolated by a physical barrier and are "beside" each other; nothing stopping the individuals in the entire population from mixing and mating, that does not happen
Sympatic Speciation
individuals in the population are not separated at all and all live in the "same place".
Allopatric Speciation
separated by an actual physical barrier that gets between members of a population
Peripatric Speciation
extreme case of geographic isolation where only a few individuals are isolated, perhaps by some sort of disaster that kills off all but a few of the isolated population
Allopatric
Physical barriers= This can be something like as small as a fallen tree for small organisms or as large as being split by oceans.
Allopatric speciation does not necessarily mean the two distinct populations cannot interact or even breed at first if the barrier causing the geographic isolation can be overcome, some members of the different populations may travel back and forth.
Over time however, a majority of the populations will stay isolated from each other and as a result; they will diverge into different species.
Peripatric
With such a small gene pool, rare genes are passed down more often, which causes genetic drift. The isolated individuals quickly become incompatible with their former species and have become a new species.
Parapatric
in parapatric speciation. For some reason, individuals within the population only mate with individuals in their immediate area.
Some factors that could influence parapatric speciation include pollution or an inability to spread seeds for plants. However, in order for it to be classified as parapatric speciation, the population must be continuous with no physical barriers. If there are any physical barriers present, it needs to be classified as either peripatric or allopatric isolation.
Sympatric
The most common cause for sympatric speciation is reproductive isolation. Reproductive isolation may be due to individuals coming into their mating seasons at different times or preference of where to find a mate. In many species, choice of mates may be based on their upbringing. Many species return to where they were born to mate. Therefore, they would only be able to mate with others who were born in the same place, no matter where they move and live as adults.

4. Allopatric example
Sympatric
The following example shows one way this can occur.
Hawthorn flies lay eggs in hawthorn trees (see Figure 1.27). The eggs hatch into larvae that feed on hawthorn fruits. Both the flies and trees are native to the U.S.
Apple trees were introduced to the U.S. and often grow near hawthorn trees. Some hawthorn flies started to lay eggs in nearby apple trees. When the eggs hatched, the larvae fed on apples.
Over time, the two fly populations—those that fed on hawthorn trees and those that preferred apple trees—evolved reproductive isolation. Now they are reproductively isolated because they breed at different times. Their breeding season matches the season when the apple or hawthorn fruits mature. This is a form of temporal isolation, which occur when individuals are active at different times of the day, seasons, or mating periods.
Because they rarely interbreed, the two populations of flies are evolving other genetic differences. They appear to be in the process of becoming separate species.

5. Patterns of Macroevolution
Convergent Evolution
The word converge means "to come together". This pattern of macroevolution happens with distinctly different species become more similar in structure and function. Usually, this type of macroevolution is seen in different species that live in similar environments. The species are still different from one another, but they often fill the same niche in their local area.
Divergent Evolution
Nearly the opposite of convergent evolution is divergent evolution. The term diverge means "to split apart". Also called adaptive radiation, this pattern is the typical example of speciation. One lineage breaks into two or more separate lines that each give rise to even more species over time. Divergent evolution is caused by changes in the environment or migration to new areas. It happens particularly quickly if there are few species already living in the new area. New species will emerge to fill the available niches.
Coevolution
All living things are affected by the other living organisms around them that share their environment. Many have close, symbiotic relationships. The species in these relationships tend to cause each other to evolve. If one of the species changes, then the other will also change in response so the relationship can continue.
Convergent =One example of convergent evolution is seen in North American hummingbirds and Asian fork-tailed sunbirds. Even though the animals look very similar, if not identical, they are separate species that come from different lineages. They evolved over time to become more alike by living in similar environments and performing the same functions.
Divergent
Divergent evolution was seen in a type of fish called the charicidae. The jaws and teeth of the fish changed based on available food sources as they inhabited new environments. Many lines of charicidae emerged over time giving rise to several new species of fish in the process. There are about 1500 known species of charicidae in existence today, including piranhas and tetras.
Co-evolution
For instance, bees feed off of flowers of plants. The plants adapted and evolved by having the bees spread the pollen to other plants. This allowed the bees to get the nutrition they needed and the plants to spread their genetics and reproduce.
Coevolution occurs in flowering plants and the species that pollinate them. The flower and bird in hummingbird and flower Figure 8.31 are a good example. They have evolved matching structures.

6. Timing of Macroevolution
Gradualism
Punctuated Equilibrium
gradual accumulation of adaptations over a long period of time
proposes that there were many adaptations that slowly added up over a steady, long period of time
change happens very rapidly with long periods of stability and no change in between
short period of quick, successive changes occur to cause speciation and the new species evolves suddenly because of a chance in their environment

7. Extinction
When every individual in a population has died off, an extinction has occurred. This, obviously, ends the species and no more speciation is able to happen for that lineage. When some species die out, others tend to flourish and take over the niche the now extinct species once filled.
Many different species have gone extinct throughout history. Most famously, the dinosaurs went extinct. The extinction of the dinosaurs allowed mammals, like humans, to come into existence and thrive. However, descendants of the dinosaurs still live on today. Birds are a type of animal that branched off from the dinosaur lineage.

8. Lesson Summary
New species arise in the process of speciation. Allopatric speciation occurs when some members of a species become geographically separated. They then evolve genetic differences. If the differences prevent them from interbreeding with the original species, a new species has evolved. Sympatric speciation occurs without geographic separation.
• Coevolution occurs when species evolve together. This often happens in species that have symbiotic relationships. Examples include flowering plants and their pollinators.
• Darwin thought that evolution occurs gradually. This model of evolution is called gradualism. The fossil record better supports the model of punctuated equilibrium. In this model, long periods of little change are interrupted by bursts of rapid change.