1. Section 1, Chapter 9
Muscular System

2. Muscle is derived from Musculus, for “Mouse”
Imagine a mouse running beneath the skin.
Functions of Muscles:
Body movement
Maintain posture
Produces heat
Propel substances through body
Heartbeat
Types of muscles include:
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
Skeletal muscle

3. Smooth Muscle Characteristics of smooth muscles Involuntary control
Tapered cells with a single, central nucleus
Lack striations

4. Smooth Muscle There are two types of smooth muscles
Multi-unit Smooth Muscle
unorganized cells that contract as individual cells
Located within the iris of eye and the walls of blood vessels
Visceral (single-unit) Smooth Muscle
Form sheets of muscle
Cells are connected by gap junctions
Muscle fibers contract as a group
Rhythmic contractions
Within walls of most hollow organs (viscera)

5. Cardiac Muscle Located only in the heart Striated cells
Intercalated discs
Muscle fibers branch
Muscle fibers contract
as a unit
Self-exciting and rhythmic

6. Skeletal Muscle Usually attached to bone Voluntary control
Striated (light & dark bands)
Muscle fibers form bundles
Several peripheral nuclei

7. Coverings of Skeletal Muscle
Fascia
Dense connective tissue surrounding skeletal muscles
Tendons
Dense connective tissue that attaches muscle to bones
Continuation of muscle fascia and bone periosteum
Aponeurosis
Broad sheet of connective tissue attaching muscles to bone, or to other muscles.

9. Coverings of Skeletal Muscle
Epimysium
Connective tissue that covers the
entire muscle
Lies deep to fascia
Perimysium
Surrounds organized bundles of
muscle fibers, called fascicles
Endomysium
Connective tissue that covers
individual muscle fibers (cells)

10. Figure 9.3 Scanning electron micrograph of a fascicle surrounded by its perimysium. Muscle fibers within the fascicle are surrounded by endomysium.

11. Organization of Skeletal Muscle
Fascicle
Organized bundle of muscle fibers
Muscle Fiber
Single muscle cell
Collection of myofibrils
Myofibrils
Collection of myofilaments
Myofilaments
Actin filament
Myosin filament
Figure 9.2
Skeletal muscle organization

13. Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Sarcolemma
Cell membrane of muscle fibers
Sarcoplasm
Cytoplasm of muscle fibers
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Modified Endoplasmic Reticulum
Stores large deposits of Calcium
sarcolemma

14. Skeletal Muscle Fibers
(Transverse)T-tubules:
invaginations of sarcolemma,
extending into the sarcoplasm.
Cisternae:
enlarged region of sarcoplasmic
reticulum, adjacent to the t-tubules
Triad
T-tubule + adjacent cisternae
Openings into t-tubules

15. Myofibrils Myofibrils are bundles of actin and myosin filaments.
Actin – thin filament
Myosin – thick filament
Striations appear from the organization of actin and myosin filaments
Figure 9.4 Organization of actin and myosin filaments

16. Sarcomere A sarcomere is the functional unit of skeletal muscle
A sarcomere is the area between
adjacent Z-lines.
During a muscle contraction the z-lines move together and the sarcomere shortens.

17. Sarcomere

18. Striations appear from alternate light and dark banding patterns.
Z Line is the attachment site of actin filaments (center of I bands)
I Bands (light band): consists of only
actin filaments
A Bands (dark band) : consists of myosin filaments and the overlapping portion of actin filaments
Figure 9.5 thin and thick filaments in a sarcomere.

19. filaments Thin filaments composed of actin proteins
Thin filaments are associated with troponin
and tropomyosin proteins
Thick filaments
composed of myosin proteins
During muscle contraction the heads on myosin filaments bind to actin filaments forming a Cross-bridge

20. Cross-Bridges
When a muscle is at rest, myosin heads are extended in the “cocked” position.
During a contraction, myosin heads bind to actin, forming a cross-bridge and the myosin head pivot forward (Power Stroke) and back (Recovery stroke)

21. Troponin-Tropomyosin Complex
The troponin-tropomyosin complex prevents cross-bridge formation when the muscle is at rest.
Tropomyosin
Blocks binding sites on
actin when a muscle is
at rest
Troponin
Ca2+ binds to troponin
during a muscle contraction.
Troponin moves repositions the tropomyosin filaments, so the myosin and actin filaments can interact.
End of section 1, chapter 9

22. Chapter 9, Section 2
Muscle Contractions

23. Synapse
Synapse: Functional (not physical) junction between an axon of a neuron and another cell
The two cells are separated by a physical space, called the synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitters are stored within synaptic vesicles of the presynaptic cell and they’re released into the synapse.

24. Neuromuscular Junction
Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) refers to the synapse between an axon and a muscle fiber.
Motor End Plate is a highly folded region of muscle fiber at NMJ that contain abundant mitochondria
Figure 9.8a. General NMJ

25. Motor Unit 1 motor unit may control between 1 and 1000 muscle fibers
Motor neurons innervate effectors (muscles or glands)
A motor unit includes a motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it controls
1 motor unit may control between 1 and 1000 muscle fibers
Figure 9.9 two motor units. The muscle fibers of a motor unit are innervated (controlled) by a single motor neuron.

26. Stimulus for Contraction
Acetylcholine (ACh) is the only neurotransmitter that initiates skeletal muscle contraction
Sequence of Actions
A nerve impulse (Action Potential) reaches axon terminal
The impulse opens calcium channels at the axon terminal
Calcium diffuse into axon
The calcium triggers the release of ACh from vesicles into synaptic cleft.

27. Stimulus for Contraction
Sequence of Actions…Continued
ACh diffuses across synaptic cleft & binds to receptors on motor endplate.
ACh opens Na+ channels on muscle
Na+ floods into the muscle, initiating a muscle impulse.
A muscle impulse (action potential) is propagated across the entire muscle.

28. Stimulus for a muscle impulse
Stimulus for a muscle impulse. Corresponds to steps 1-7 in the previous slides.

29. The muscle impulse causes the release of calcium from the SR
The muscle impulse causes the release of calcium from the SR. Calcium binds to troponin and tropomyosin is repositioned exposing the actin filaments.

30. Stimulus for contraction continued…
8. The muscle impulse diffuses across sarcolemma and down the t-tubules into the cisternae of sarcoplasmic reticula.
9. The sarcoplasmic reticula release their calcium supplies into the sarcoplasm.
10. Calcium binds to troponin and the troponin repositions the tropomyosin, so the myosin can bind to actin.
11. Cross-bridge cycling causes the muscle to contract.

31. Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Calcium released from sarcoplasmic reticulum binds to troponin.
Troponin moves tropomyosin, exposing actin filaments to myosin cross-bridges.
myosin heads bind to actin, forming a cross bridge and cross-bridge cycling causes the muscle to contract.
End of section 2, chapter 9

32. Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction
ivyanatomy.com
section 3, chapter 9
Sliding Filament Theory of Contraction

33. The Sliding Filament Model of Muscle Contraction
During a muscle contraction
Thick (myosin) filaments and thin (actin) filaments slide across one another
The filaments do not change lengths
Z-bands move closer together causing the sarcomere to shorten.
I bands appear narrow
Figure 9.11a. Individual sarcomeres shorten as thick and thin filaments slide past one another.

34. Cross Bridge Cycling
When a muscle is relaxed, tropmyosin covers the binding sites on actin.
A molecule of ADP and Phosphate remains attached to myosin from the previous contraction.

35. Cross Bridge Cycling During a contraction, Calcium binds to troponin.
Tropomyosin is repositioned, exposing the myosin binding sites on actin filaments

36. Cross Bridge Cycling Myosin heads bind to actin filaments.
The phosphate is released.

37. Cross Bridge Cycling
Myosin heads spring forward “Power Stroke” pulling the actin filaments.
ADP is released from Myosin

38. Cross Bridge Cycling Myosin is released from actin.
A new molecule of ATP binds to myosin, causing it to be released from the actin filament.
ATP is not yet broken down, but it is essential to release the cross-bridges.

39. Cross Bridge Cycling
ATP is broken down, providing the energy to “cock” the myosin filaments (recovery stroke).
Steps 1-6 are repeated several times.

40. Figure 9. 10. The cross-bridge cycle
Figure The cross-bridge cycle. The cycle continues as long as ATP is present, and nerve impulses release Acetylcholoine.
Watch the You-Tube video “Sliding Filament” to view cross-bridge cycling in action.

41. Relaxation
When a nerve impulse ceases, two events relax muscle fibers.
Acetylcholinesterase breaks down Ach in the synapse.
Prevents continuous stimulation of a muscle fiber.
Calcium Pumps (Ca2+ATPase) remove Ca2+ from the sarcoplasm and returns it to the SR.
Without calcium, tropomyosin covers the binding sites on actin filaments.

42. Relaxation * Notice that ATP is required for muscle relaxation!
Rigor Mortis is a partial contraction of skeletal muscles that occurs a few hours after death.
After death calcium leaks into sarcoplasm, triggering the muscle contractions.
But ATP supplies are diminished after death, so ATP is not available to remove the cross-bridge linkages between actin and myosin.
muscles do not relax*.
Contraction is sustained until muscles begin to decompose.
* Notice that ATP is required for muscle relaxation!

43. End of Chapter 9, Section 3

44. Energy Sources for Contraction
ivyanatomy.com
section 4, chapter 9
Energy Sources for Contraction

45. Energy Sources for Contraction
ATP provides the energy to power the interaction between actin & myosin filaments.
However, ATP is quickly spent and must be replenished
New ATP molecules are synthesized by
Hydrolysis of Creatine Phosphate
Glycolysis (anaerobic respiration)
Aerobic Respiration

46. Creatine Phosphate
Creatine Phosphate can be hydrolyzed into Creatine, releasing energy that is used to make new ATP.
The energy from creatine phosphate hydrolysis cannot be used to directly power muscles.
Instead, it’s used to produce new ATP.

47. Creatine Phosphate…continued
When cellular ATP is abundant, creatine phosphate can be replenished by phosphorylating creatine.
Creatine Phosphate provides energy for only about 10 seconds of a high intensity muscle contraction.

48. Glycolysis
Anaerobic respiration (glycolysis) occurs in the cytosol of the cell and does not require oxygen.
Glucose molecules are partially broken down producing just 2 ATP for each glucose.
If there isn’t sufficient oxygen available, glycolysis produces lactic acid as a byproduct.

49. Oxygen debt of glycolysis
Exercise and strenuous activity depends on anaerobic respiration for ATP supplies.
During exercise anaerobic respiration causes lactic acid to accumulate in the cells.
After exercise, when oxygen is available the O2 is used to convert lactic acid back to glucose in the liver.
Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen needed by liver cells to convert accumulated lactic acid back to glucose.

50. Oxygen debt

51. Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration (uses oxygen) occurs in the mitochondria and it includes the citric acid cycle & electron transport chain.
Aerobic respiration is a slower reaction than glycolysis, but it produces the most ATP.
Myoglobin
Oxygen binding protein (similar to hemoglobin) within muscles
-Provides additional oxygen supply to muscles

52. Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration is used primarily at rest or during light exercise.
Muscles that rely on aerobic respiration have plenty of mitochondria and a good blood supply.

53. Energy Sources for Contraction
Figure The oxygen required for aerobic respiration is carried in the blood and stored in myoglobin. In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic respiration uses pyruvic acid to produce lactic acid.

54. Muscle Fatigue Muscle Fatigue = Inability for the muscle to contract
Several factors can cause muscle fatigue:
Decreased blood flow
Ion imbalances across the sarcolemma
Lactic acid accumulation – (greatest cause of fatigue)
Cramp:
A cramp is a sustained, involuntary, and painful muscle contraction
It’s due to electrolyte imbalance surrounding muscle

55. Heat Production End of Chapter 9, Section 4
Heat is produced as a by-product of cellular respiration
Muscle cells are major source of body heat
Blood transports heat throughout body core
End of Chapter 9, Section 4

56. ivyanatomy.com
section 5, chapter 9
muscular responses

57. Muscle Response subthreshold stimulus Myograph
A muscle contraction can be observed by removing a single skeletal muscle and connecting it to a device (myograph) that senses and records changes in the overall length of the muscle fiber.
A threshold stimulus is the minimum stimulus that elicits a muscle fiber contraction
all-or-none response
A threshold stimulus will cause the muscle fiber to contract fully and completely.
A stronger stimulus does not produce a stronger contraction!
muscle
subthreshold stimulus
Myograph
The muscle fiber will not contract at all if the stimulus is less than threshold.

58. Recording of a Muscle Contraction
A twitch is a single contractile response to a stimulus
A twitch can be divided into three periods.
Latent period
brief delay between the stimulus
and the muscle contraction
The latent period is less than 2 milliseconds in humans
2. Period of contraction
3. Period of relaxation

59. Summation series of twitches
Figure 9.17a
series of twitches
If the muscle is allowed to relax completely before each stimulus than the muscle will contract with the same force.
Figure 9.17b
summation
If the muscle is stimulated again before it has completely relaxed, then the force of the next contraction increases.
i.e. stimulating the muscle at a rapid frequency increases the force of contraction. This is called summation

60. Summation Tetanic Contraction (c)
If the muscle is stimulated at a high frequency the contractions fuse together and cannot be distinguished.
A tetanic contraction results in a maximal sustained contraction without relaxation
Figure 9.17c

61. Recruitment of Motor Units
all-or-none response
A muscle that is stimulated with threshold potential contracts completely and fully.
A stronger stimulus does not produce a stronger contraction!
Instead, the strength of a muscle is increased by recruitment of additional motor units.

62. Recruitment of Motor Units
Recruitment – progressive activation of motor units to increase the force of a muscle contraction.
Recall that a motor unit is a motor neuron plus all of the fibers it controls.
Muscles are composed of many motor units.
As a general rule, motor units are recruited in order of their size
Small motor units are stimulated with light activities, but additional
motor units are recruited with higher intensity activity.
As the intensity of stimulation increases, recruitment of motor units continues until all motor units are activated.

63. Sustained Contractions
The central nervous system can increase the
strength of contractions in 2 ways:
Recruitment
Smaller motor units are recruited first, followed by larger motor units.
The result is a sustained contraction of increasing strength.
Increased firing rate
A high frequency of action potentials results in summation of the muscle contractions.
If the frequency is too high, however, it may produce tetanic contractions, in which case the muscle does not relax.
Muscle tone is produced because some muscles are in a continuous state of partial contraction in response to repeated nerve impulses from the spinal cord.

64. Types of Contractions Isotonic – muscle contracts and changes length
Concentric – shortening of muscle (a)
Eccentric – lengthening of muscle (b)
Isometric – muscle contracts but does not change length (c)
Isometric contractions stabilizes posture and holds the body upright
Figure muscle contractions

65. Fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers
Fast & Slow twitch refers to the contraction speed, and to whether muscle fibers produce ATP oxidatively (by aerobic respiration) or glycolytically (by glycolysis)
Slow-twitch fibers (Type I)
Always oxidative and resistant to fatigue
Contain myoglobin for oxygen storage “red fibers”
Also have many mitochondria for aerobic respiration
Good blood supply

66. Slow-twitch fibers (Type I)
Slow-twitch fibers are best suited for endurance exercise over a long period with little force.
Slow-twitch fibers rely on aerobic respiration for energy (ATP) and are resistant to fatigue.
Slow-Twitch fibers contain abundant myoglobin for oxygen storage “red fibers” and mitochondria to carry out aerobic respiration.
Because of their oxygen demands, slow-twitch fibers have a good blood supply.

67. Fast twitch muscle fibers – two types
Fast-twitch glycolytic fibers contract rapidly and with great force, but they fatigue quickly.
They are best suited for rapid contractions over a short duration.
Fast-twitch glycolytic fibers (type IIa) contain very little mitochondria and myoglobin and are “white fibers”

68. Fast twitch muscle fibers – two types
Fast-twitch intermediate or fast oxidative fibers contain intermediate amounts of myoglobin.
They contract rapidly but also have the capacity to generate energy through aerobic respiration.

69. Fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers
Migrating birds have abundant slow-twitch fibers for flying long distances, which is why their flesh is dark.
Chickens that can only flap around the barnyard have abundant fast-twitch muscles and mostly white flesh.
End of Chapter 9