1. Prime programs Programming Language Design and Implementation (4th Edition) by T. Pratt and M. Zelkowitz Prentice Hall, 2001 Section 8.3.3

2. Prime programs 2 Understanding control structures Earlier discussion on control structures seemed somewhat ad hoc. Is there a theory to describe control structures? Do we have the right control structures? Roy Maddux in 1975 developed the concept of a prime program as a mechanism for answering these questions.

3. Prime programs 3 Spaghetti code

4. Prime programs 4 Control structures represented as flowcharts

5. Prime programs 5

6. 6 Theory of prime programs Consider 3 classes of flowchart nodes: Any flowchart is a graph of directed arcs and these 3 types of nodes:

7. Prime programs 7 Proper programs A proper program is a flowchart with:  1 entry arc  1 exit arc  There is a path from entry arc to any node to exit arc A prime program is a proper program which has no embedded proper subprogram of greater than 1 node. (i.e., cannot cut 2 arcs to extract a prime subprogram within it). A composite program is a proper program that is not prime.

8. Prime programs 8 Prime flowcharts

9. Prime programs 9 Prime decomposition Every proper program can be decomposed into a hierarchical set of prime subprograms. This decomposition is unique (except for special case of linear sequences of function nodes).

10. Prime programs 10 All prime programs can be enumerated All primes can be enumerated (next slide) Each implements a function. What is function for 2-node primes (c) and (d) and 4-node primes (l) through (q)? All primes with at least 1 function node are our usual control structures - except (k) - the do-while-do construct. More about this later.

11. Prime programs 11

12. Prime programs 12 Number of primes is infinite Construction to create primes with any number of nodes: Use of prime programs to define structured programming: Concept first used by Dijkstra in 1968 as gotoless programming. Called structured programming in early 1970s- Program only with if, while and sequence control structures.

13. Prime programs 13 Structured programming Issue in 1970s: Does this limit what programs can be written?  Resolved by Structure Theorem of Böhm-Jacobini. Here is a graph version of theorem originally developed by Harlan Mills:

14. Prime programs 14 Structure theorem Outline of proof: 1. Label each arc with 1 being the entry arc and 0 the exit arc. 2. Let I be a new variable not used in program. 3. For each node in program construct the following:

15. Prime programs 15 Structure theorem (continued) 4. Create the following new flowchart on right. If F is the original function, what is the new function?

16. Prime programs 16 Program verification - again For every flowchart, we can compute a function for each arc in its prime decomposition. f1: S1  S3; f2: S2  S4; f3: S5  Sf A program is then C(f1, f2, f3): S0  Sf Program verification is a formal method to define these functions: Axiomatic - Hoare, 1969 Weakest precondition - Dijkstra, 1972 Algebraic data types - Guttag, 1975 Functional correctness - Mills, 1975

17. Prime programs 17 Prime programs - Summary Structure theorem does not say: Given any “spaghetti program” convert it into a structured program. What it does say is that there is no loss of functionality in using only those control structures. It is still up to the programmer to choose the best algorithm to solve problem. Also, the prime decomposition shows that the primes up to 4 nodes are the useful programming language control structures, except for the do-while-do, which has been ignored by language designers.