2. Many ancient scholars believed matter was composed of such things as earth, water, air, and fire. Many believed matter could be endlessly divided into smaller and smaller pieces.

5. Section 4.1 Early Ideas About Matter Key Concepts Democritus was the first person to propose the existence of atoms. According to Democritus, atoms are solid, homogeneous, and indivisible. Aristotle did not believe in the existence of atoms. John Dalton’s atomic theory is based on numerous scientific experiments.

6. J.J. Thomson's plum pudding model of the atom states that the atom is a uniform, positively changed sphere containing electrons.

7. In 1911, Ernest Rutherford studied how positively charged alpha particles interacted with solid matter. By aiming the particles at a thin sheet of gold foil, Rutherford expected the paths of the alpha particles to be only slightly altered by a collision with an electron.

8. Rutherford concluded that atoms are mostly empty space. Almost all of the atom's positive charge and almost all of its mass is contained in a dense region in the center of the atom called the nucleus.nucleus Electrons are held within the atom by their attraction to the positively charged nucleus.

9. The repulsive force between the positively charged nucleus and positive alpha particles caused the deflections.

10. Rutherford refined the model to include positively charged particles in the nucleus called protons.protons James Chadwick received the Nobel Prize in 1935 for discovering the existence of neutrons, neutral particles in the nucleus which accounts for the remainder of an atom’s mass.neutrons

11. All atoms are made of three fundamental subatomic particles: the electron, the proton, and the neutron. Atoms are spherically shaped. Atoms are mostly empty space, and electrons travel around the nucleus held by an attraction to the positively charged nucleus.

13. Symbols All elements have their own unique symbol. It can consist of a single capital letter, or a capital letter and one or two lower case letters.

14. Common Elements and Symbols

15. Key to the Periodic Table Elements are organized on the table according to their atomic number, usually found near the top of the square. The atomic number refers to how many protons an atom of that element has. For instance, hydrogen has 1 proton, so it’s atomic number is 1. The atomic number is unique to that element. No two elements have the same atomic number.

16. What’s in a square? Different periodic tables can include various bits of information, but usually: atomic number symbol atomic mass number of valence electrons state of matter at room temperature.

17. Atomic Number This refers to how many protons an atom of that element has. No two elements, have the same number of protons. Wave Model

18. Atomic Mass Atomic Mass refers to the “weight” of the atom. It is derived at by adding the number of protons with the number of neutrons. H

20. Atomic Mass and Isotopes Some atoms have more or less neutrons than protons. These are called isotopes. An atomic mass number with a decimal is the total of the number of protons plus the average number of neutrons. When written in this format, the top number is the mass number and the bottom number would be the atomic number. (because the atomic number does not change, it may not always be included.)

22. Section 4.3 How Atoms Differ Key Concepts The atomic number of an atom is given by its number of protons. The mass number of an atom is the sum of its neutrons and protons. atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons mass number = atomic number + number of neutrons Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. The atomic mass of an element is a weighted average of the masses of all of its naturally occurring isotopes.

26. Families Periods Columns of elements are called groups or families. Elements in each family have similar but not identical properties. For example, lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and other members of family IA are all soft, white, shiny metals. All elements in a family have the same number of valence electrons. Each horizontal row of elements is called a period. The elements in a period are not alike in properties. In fact, the properties change greatly across even given row. The first element in a period is always an extremely active solid. The last element in a period, is always an inactive gas.

27. Alkali Metals The alkali family is found in the first column of the periodic table. Atoms of the alkali metals have a single electron in their outermost level, in other words, 1 valence electron. They are shiny, have the consistency of clay, and are easily cut with a knife.

28. Alkaline Earth Metals They are never found uncombined in nature. They have two valence electrons. Alkaline earth metals include magnesium and calcium, among others.

29. Transition Metals Transition Elements include those elements in the B families. These are the metals you are probably most familiar: copper, tin, zinc, iron, nickel, gold, and silver. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

30. Boron Family The Boron Family is named after the first element in the family. Atoms in this family have 3 valence electrons. This family includes a metalloid (boron), and the rest are metals. This family includes the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust (aluminum).

31. Carbon Family Atoms of this family have 4 valence electrons. This family includes a non- metal (carbon), metalloids, and metals. The element carbon is called the “basis of life.” There is an entire branch of chemistry devoted to carbon compounds called organic chemistry.

32. Nitrogen Family The nitrogen family is named after the element that makes up 78% of our atmosphere. This family includes non- metals, metalloids, and metals. Atoms in the nitrogen family have 5 valence electrons. They tend to share electrons when they bond. Other elements in this family are phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth.

33. Oxygen Family Atoms of this family have 6 valence electrons. Most elements in this family share electrons when forming compounds. Oxygen is the most abundant element in the earth’s crust. It is extremely active and combines with almost all elements.

34. Halogen Family The elements in this family are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. Halogens have 7 valence electrons, which explains why they are the most active non-metals. They are never found free in nature. Halogen atoms only need to gain 1 electron to fill their outermost energy level. They react with alkali metals to form salts.

35. Noble Gases Noble Gases are colorless gases that are extremely un-reactive. One important property of the noble gases is their inactivity. They are inactive because their outermost energy level is full. Because they do not readily combine with other elements to form compounds, the noble gases are called inert. The family of noble gases includes helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. All the noble gases are found in small amounts in the earth's atmosphere.

36. Rare Earth Elements The thirty rare earth elements are composed of the lanthanide and actinide series. One element of the lanthanide series and most of the elements in the actinide series are called trans- uranium, which means synthetic or man-made.

37. Valence Electrons The number of valence electrons an atom has may also appear in a square. Valence electrons are the electrons in the outer energy level of an atom. These are the electrons that are transferred or shared when atoms bond together.

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41. Periodic Table: electron behavior The periodic table can be classified by the behavior of their electrons

42. Atomic Radius size of atom © 1998 LOGAL z First Ionization Energy Energy required to remove one e - from a neutral atom. © 1998 LOGAL z Melting/Boiling Point C. Other Properties

43. Atomic Radius Decreases to the RIGHT and Increases as you go DOWN D. Atomic Radius

44. Electronegativity Trend Increases up and to the right.

45. First Ionization Energy Increases UP and to the RIGHT E. Ionization Energy

46. Melting/Boiling Point Highest in the middle of a period. F. Melting/Boiling Point

47. Summary of Periodic Trends 1. Melting/Boiling Point 2. Atomic Radius 2. Atomic Radius 3. Ionization Energy 3. Ionization Energy 4. Electron Affinity 4. Electron Affinity Note: direction of arrow shows increase; arrows are color coded