1. Respiratory System Chapter 15
Created by; Nicole Manago and Morgan Baldy

2. Respiratory System

3. Respiratory System

4. Respiratory System Functions
Nose- Where air normally enters the Respiratory system.
Pharynx- The throat, extends between the internal nares and entrance to larynx / esophagus.
Larynx- Inhaled air leaves the pharynx and enters larynx (voice box).
Trachea- Helps contraction to make large volumes of air along passageways.
Bronchi/ Bronchioles- Supplies the lungs with air.
Alveoli- Gives the lungs an open spongy appearance.
Lungs- How one breathes, the right lung has 3 lobes and the left lung has 2 lobes.
Pleural Cavity- Rib cage and muscular diaphragm, each lung occupies a cavity.

5. Pulmonary Ventilation: Pressure Changes
Pulmonary Ventilation is the physical movement of air into and out of the respiratory tract.
The volume of the thoracic cavity increases when the ribs are elevated and the diaphragm is depressed during contraction.
When the rib cage and diaphragm are at rest the pressures inside and outside are equal and no air movement occurs.

6. Pulmonary Ventilation: Pressure Changes
During inhalation, elevation of the rib cage and depression of the diaphragm increases the volume of the thoracic cavity. Pressure in the lungs decrease and air flows into the lungs.
During exhalation, the rib cage returns to its original position or the diaphragm relaxes. Reducing the volume of the thoracic cavity, pressure in the lungs rises and air flows out of the lungs.
During both inhalation and exhalation contraction of accessory muscles may assist movements of the rib cage to increase depth and rate of respiration.

8. Lung Volumes
The amount of air moved into or out of the lungs during a single respiratory cycle is the tidal volume. 
 Expiratory Reserve Volume - The amount of air that can be voluntarily expelled at the end of a respiratory cycle
Inspiratory reserve volume(IRV) - The amount of air that can be taken in over and above the resting tidal volume.  Since male and female lung capacities are much different, a males IRV will average 3300 mL while a female is 1900mL. 

9. Lung Volumes
Vital Capacity - The sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, the expiratory reserve volume, and the total volume.
  It is also the maximum amount of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs in one respiratory cycle. 
Residual Volume - The amount of air that remains in your lungs even after a maximal exhalation.
  A reason why this exists is because the lungs are held against the thoracic wall and this prevents the elastic fibers from contracting any further. 
Minimal Volume - When a chest cavity has been penetrated, the lungs will collapse and the amount of air is reduced to the minimal volume. 

10. Oxygen Transport Oxygen is transported bound to Hemoglobin Molecules
Specifically to the iron ions in the center of heme units
This process occurs through a reversible reaction
Hb+O HbO2
The amount of oxygen released by hemoglobin depends primarily on the Po2 of its surroundings
The lower the oxygen content of a tissue, the more oxygen is released by hemoglobin molecules passing through local capillaries
Active tissues will receive roughly three times much oxygen as inactive tissues
The amount of oxygen released is also influenced by pH and temperature

11. Oxygen Transport
Active Tissues generate acids that lower the pH of the interstitial fluids
When the pH declines, hemoglobin molecules release their bound oxygen molecules faster
Po2, pH, and temperature re important during periods of maximal exertion
The combination of the three factor-s makes the hemoglobin entering the area release much more oxygen that can release much more oxygen that can be used by active muscle fibers

12. Carbon Dioxide Transport
Carbon Dioxide is generated by aerobic metabolism in peripheral tissues
After entering the bloodstream, a CO2 Molecule may:
Dissolve in Plasma
Bind to hemoglobin within red blood cells
Be converted to a molecule of carbon acid (H2CO3)
Only about 7% of the carbon dioxide absorbed by the peripheral capillaries is transported as dissolved gas molecules
In the red blood cells, some of the carbon dioxide molecules are bound to the protein “globin” portions of the hemoglobin molecules
This forms carbaminohemoglobin
23% of the carbon dioxide entering the blood in the peripheral tissues is transported as carbaminohemoglobin

13. Carbon Dioxide Transport
70% of all carbon dioxide molecules in the body are transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ions
Carbon Dioxide in Red Blood Cells is converted to carbonic acid by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase
Each molecule dissociates into a hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion
Co2+H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
Hydrogen Ions bind to hemoglobin molecules, preventing both their release from the RBCs and lowering of plasma pH
Bicarbonate ions diffuse into surrounding plasma
When venous blood reaches the alveoli, carbon dioxide diffuses out of plasma, and P CO2 declines.
The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood involves reactions that are completely reversible

14. Respiratory Control
If the peripheral tissue becomes more active, the interstitial Po2 falls and the P co2 rises
This makes for more oxygen being delivered and more carbon dioxide being carried away
Rising Pco2 levels case the relaxation of smooth muscles in the walls of arterioles in the area, increasing blood flow
When Pco2 increases, the bronchioles dilate; when the Pco2 declines the bronchioles constrict
Airflow is directed to lobules in which the Pco2 is high

15. Respiratory Control Both voluntary and involuntary
The brains involuntary respiratory centers regulates the respiratory muscles and control the frequency and the depth of breathing
The voluntary control of respiration reflects activity in the cerebral cortex that affects the out of the respiratory centers or of motor neurons that control respiratory muscles
Respiratory Centers- are three pairs of nuclei in the reticular formation of the pons and medulla oblongata
The respiratory rhythmicity centers set the pace for respiration

16. Reflex Control Breathing occurs without conscious control
Activities of the respiratory centers are modified by sensory information from mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors respond to changes in lung volume or to changes in arterial blood pressure
The inflation reflex- prevents the lungs from over expanding during forced breathing
The mechanoreceptors involved are stretch receptors that are stimulated when the lungs expand
As volume of the lungs increase, the DRG inspiratory center is gradually inhibited, and the VRG expiratory center is stimulated
Deflation reflex- inhibits the expiratory center and stimulates inspiratory center when the lungs are collapsing
Output from these baroreceptors also affects the respiratory centers
When blood pressure falls, the respiratory rate increases: when blood pressure rises, the respiratory rate declines

17. Basic Regulatory Patterns of Respiration

18. Chemoreceptor Reflexes
They respond to chemical changes in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid.
The stimulation leads to an increase in the depth and rate of respiration
Receptors in the medulla oblongata respond to the pH and Pco2 in cerebrospinal fluid
Carbon Dioxide levels have a more powerful effect on respiratory activity than do oxygen levels
This is because a relatively small increase in arterial Pco2 stimulates CO2 receptors, but arterial Po2 doesn't’t usually decline enough to activate oxygen receptors
Carbon Dioxide levels regulate respiratory activity under normal conditions
The cooperation between the carbon dioxide and oxygen receptors breaks down only under unusual circumstances
If Po2 is reduced enough, breath-holding ability may increase to the point that the individual becomes unconscious from oxygen starvation in the brain without ever feeling urge to breath
The chemoreceptors monitoring CO2 levels are also sensitive to pH
Any condition affecting pH of blood or CSF will affect respiratory performance