1. Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
From the time maps of the globe became available, people wondered about the arrangement of the continents and oceans. Hundreds of years later, valid explanations were constructed.

2. Early Observations
Leonardo da Vinci and Francis Bacon wondered about the possibility of the American and African continents having broken apart, based on their shapes.
This thinking continued up into the early 20th century, to a meteorologist named Alfred Wegener.

3. Pangaea
Wegener revived the early idea of continental drift, contending that all of the present-day continents were connected,
side-by-side, as long ago as the Carboniferous (~300 Myr).
He called the supercontinental mass Pangaea,
Greek for ‘all lands’.

4. Wegener’s summary was based on a number of careful observations:
Wegener’s Evidence
Wegener’s summary was based on a number of careful observations:
-- matching rock, fossil, glacier, and structural relations among different parts of different continents

5. Continental Drift: Fossil Evidence
Mesosaurus: purely freshwater reptile
Glossopteris: seeds too large to be effectively wind-transported

6. Continental Drift: Glacial Evidence
Large ice masses carve grooves in the rocks over which flow.
Such masses tend to flow outward (generally downhill) from a central locality.

7. Continental Drift: Rock Ages
Even before geochronology, the
relative framework of rock ages showed strong correlation across the Atlantic, as did mountain ranges of similar age.

8. Mechanism of Continental Drift?
Wegener never lived to see the general acceptance of continental drift, largely because of the lack of a mechanism. Wegener considered the buoyant continents to be ‘plowing’ through the mantle, resulting in mountain belts on continental edges.

9. Mantle Convection
Beginning just after Wegener’s end, Arthur Holmes began to
describe mantle heat flow in terms of convection.
Deep materials, hotter than their surroundings (and hence
buoyant), would tend to flow upward. In approaching the cool
surface of the Earth, the material would lose its thermal
energy, cool and sink, having lost buoyancy.
The motion of mantle material put into action by convection
thus becomes a plausible mechanism for moving rigid pieces
of the crust over some more actively flowing mantle material.

10. Mantle Convection
Materials that can flow tend to lose thermal energy by the convection process. This explains circulation in a pot of water that is being heated from below in the same way it describes the cooling of the Earth.

11. Harry Hess and Marine Geology
From the 1940’s to the 60’s, Harry Hess made many key intellectual contributions to the coming revolution
in geologic thought:
He also speculated that the continents did not plow through ocean crust, but that the two are linked and move as a unit.
-- echo-sounding of sea floor revealed deep sea features like guyots and seamounts, and the topography of mid-ocean ridges
-- ridges are areas of high heat flow and volcanic activity
-- young age of ocean floor, based on thickness of sediment

12. Topography and Age of the Sea Floor
thin
sediment
cover
thick
sediment
cover
thick
mantle
"ballast"
pulls the
whole
plate
down
As ocean crust ages, it cools and is less buoyant. The cool mantle
root on this crust helps pull it down into the mantle, resulting in
deeper sea floor progressively away from the ridges.

13. Harry Hess and Sea Floor Spreading
Hess rationalized all of his observations into a system linked by the old Holmes concept of mantle convection.
He conjectured that hot material rose at the oceanic ridges, thus explaining the high heat flow and basaltic volcanic activity, and why the ocean floor is bulged up at the ridges.
The logical next step is that where continent and ocean meet, at the trenches, ocean crust is being returned to the mantle at the same rate it is being generated at the ridges.

14. Sea Floor Spreading
Hess combined his observations with the earlier ideas of Wegener and the mechanism of Holmes into the concept of
sea floor spreading, which lead to plate tectonics.
*This hypothesis makes a number of testable predictions.*

15. Earth’s Magnetic Field
The Earth has an invisible magnetic field, which has been critical to the earliest nautical navigation: all free-floating magnets at the Earth’s surface point to magnetic north.
Iron-rich minerals crystallizing from molten rock will orient towards magnetic north when they cool below the Curie point, the temperature above which permanent magnetism is impossible (580oC for magnetite).
Thus lavas lock in the record of Earth’s
magnetic field when they form.
How do we measure the ‘magnetism’ of a rock?

16. * Taking magnetic stratigraphy back in time is paleomagnetism. *
Magnetic Reversals
Interestingly, the polarity of the magnetic field shifts every Myr. That means rocks formed over time will record either ‘normal’ magnetic orientation (like today), or ‘reversed’. Since this is a global phenomenon, these changes can be used for global stratigraphic correlation.
We are apparently headed into a polarity reversal, to be complete in ~3000 yr.
* Taking magnetic stratigraphy back in time is paleomagnetism. *

17. How does the field reverse?
Geomagnetic reversals • MECHANISM
How does the field reverse?
• currents in outer core slowly change direction
• new computer model demonstrates how currents flow and field reverses
• field weakens and loses dipolar form while changing direction

18. Effects of a future reversal
Geomagnetic reversals • CONSEQUENCES
Effects of a future reversal
• solar wind will hit Earth more strongly
• increased radiation will cause greater skin cancer
• disaster is unlikely—Earth has survived countless reversals in the past

19. Gothenburg flip Geomagnetic reversals • ANOMALIES
• worldwide data shows a reversal around 10,500 B.C.
• some data from same time shows no reversal
• coincides with mass extinction and end of ice age

20. Paleomagnetism on the Sea Floor
An amazing discovery was made when the magnetic profile of the sea floor around the Mid-Atlantic Ridge was mapped.
The maps showed parallel magnetic ‘stripes’ that were perfectly symmetrical across the ridge axis.
Colored stripes represent rocks with present-day magnetic orientations (‘normal polarity’), grey represents rocks with reversed polarity.

21. Paleomagnetism and Sea Floor Spreading
Vine and Matthews interpreted the magnetic stripes as products of steady creation of new ocean crust over geologic time, supporting the hypothesis of Hess.

22. Magnetic Field: Direction and Inclination
Rock magnetism has two components: the direction of magnetic ‘pointing’ and the inclination of this with the Earth’s surface. Magnetic inclination goes from nearly horizontal at the equator to vertical at the magnetic pole.
Magnetic North vs True North
Thus, magnetic records give an indication of where the rock was on the surface when it was magnetized.

23. Magnetism and Wandering Continents
Another key contribution to the geology thought-revolution came from paleomagnetic studies on the continents. It was noticed that the magnetic pole positions indicated by rocks of known age were not constant.
If magnetic north remained in an essentially similar position over Earth history (despite the periodic polarity changes), then the different magnetic orientations meant that the continents had moved.
These results showed that some rocks on continents currently at equatorial positions had occupied high latitudes in the past.

24. Apparent Polar Wander Paths

25. The Key Features of Plate Tectonics
(1) The Earth’s crust is constantly being created
and destroyed (recycled).
(2) Ocean crust, formed at divergent margins, is mafic and dense.
(3) As ocean crust ages and cools, its great density relative to the continents results in subduction
as plates converge.
[As a result, old ocean crust cannot persist, whereas old parts of the buoyant continents can survive for eons.]
(4) The other kind of plate margins, transforms, are parallel to the current motion of the plates.

26. Testing Plate Tectonics
Like any theory, plate tectonics has been rigorously tested, and from a startling array of disciplines.
This model is consistent with the key tests thus far, including:
* sea floor spreading
* paleomagnetic ‘paths’
* age structure of the sea floor and continents
* locations and focal depths of earthquakes
* seismic tomography
* hotspot tracks

27. Mechanisms of Plate Tectonics:
Ridge-Push 2 1
Mantle 3
drag
convective flow of mantle

28. Mechanisms of Plate Tectonics:4
Plume-Driven

29. Credits
Some of the images in this presentation come from: Plummer, McGeary and Carlson, Physical Geology, 8/e; Hamblin and Christiansen, Earth’s Dynamic Systems, 8/e; Press and Siever, Understanding Earth, 3/e; Paul Tomascak (University of Maryland)