1. 1 1 Slide Decision Analysis Professor Ahmadi

2. 2 2 Slide Decision Analysis Chapter Outline n Structuring the Decision Problem n Decision Making Without Probabilities n Decision Making with Probabilities n Expected Value of Perfect Information

3. 3 3 Slide Structuring the Decision Problem n A decision problem is characterized by decision alternatives, states of nature, and resulting payoffs. n The decision alternatives are the different possible strategies the decision maker can employ. n The states of nature refer to future events, not under the control of the decision maker, which may occur. States of nature should be defined so that they are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. n For each decision alternative and state of nature, there is an outcome. n These outcomes are often represented in a matrix called a payoff table.

4. 4 4 Slide Decision Trees n A decision tree is a chronological representation of the decision problem. n Each decision tree has two types of nodes; round nodes correspond to the states of nature while square nodes correspond to the decision alternatives. n The branches leaving each round node represent the different states of nature while the branches leaving each square node represent the different decision alternatives. n At the end of each limb of a tree are the payoffs attained from the series of branches making up that limb.

5. 5 5 Slide Decision Making Without Probabilities n If the decision maker does not know with certainty which state of nature will occur, then he is said to be doing decision making under uncertainty. n Three commonly used criteria for decision making under uncertainty when probability information regarding the likelihood of the states of nature is unavailable are the optimistic approachthe optimistic approach the conservative approachthe conservative approach the minimax regret approach.the minimax regret approach.

6. 6 6 Slide Optimistic Approach n The optimistic approach would be used by an optimistic decision maker. n The decision with the largest possible payoff is chosen. n If the payoff table was in terms of costs, the decision with the lowest cost would be chosen.

7. 7 7 Slide Conservative Approach n The conservative approach would be used by a conservative decision maker. n For each decision the minimum payoff is listed and then the decision corresponding to the maximum of these minimum payoffs is selected. (Hence, the minimum possible payoff is maximized.) n If the payoff was in terms of costs, the maximum costs would be determined for each decision and then the decision corresponding to the minimum of these maximum costs is selected. (Hence, the maximum possible cost is minimized.)

8. 8 8 Slide Minimax Regret Approach n The minimax regret approach requires the construction of a regret table or an opportunity loss table. n This is done by calculating for each state of nature the difference between each payoff and the largest payoff for that state of nature. n Then, using this regret table, the maximum regret for each possible decision is listed. n The decision chosen is the one corresponding to the minimum of the maximum regrets.

9. 9 9 Slide Example: Marketing Strategy Consider the following problem with two decision alternatives (d 1 & d 2 ) and two states of nature S 1 (Market Receptive) and S 2 (Market Unfavorable) with the following payoff table representing profits ( $1000): States of Nature States of Nature s 1 s 3 s 1 s 3 d 1 20 6 d 1 20 6 Decisions Decisions d 2 25 3 d 2 25 3

10. 10 Slide Example n Optimistic Approach An optimistic decision maker would use the optimistic approach. All we really need to do is to choose the decision that has the largest single value in the payoff table. This largest value is 25, and hence the optimal decision is d 2. Maximum Maximum Decision Payoff Decision Payoff d 1 20 d 1 20 choose d 2 d 2 25 maximum

11. 11 Slide Example n Conservative Approach A conservative decision maker would use the conservative approach. List the minimum payoff for each decision. Choose the decision with the maximum of these minimum payoffs. Minimum Minimum Decision Payoff Decision Payoff choose d 1 d 1 6 maximum choose d 1 d 1 6 maximum d 2 3 d 2 3

12. 12 Slide Example n Minimax Regret Approach For the minimax regret approach, first compute a regret table by subtracting each payoff in a column from the largest payoff in that column. The resulting regret table is: s 1 s 2 s 1 s 2 d 1 5 0 d 1 5 0 d 2 0 3 d 2 0 3

13. 13 Slide Example n Minimax Regret Approach (continued) For each decision, list the maximum regret. Choose the decision with the minimum of these values. Decision Maximum Regret Decision Maximum Regret d 1 5 d 1 5 choose d2d 2 3minimum

14. 14 Slide Decision Making with Probabilities n Expected Value Approach If probabilistic information regarding the states of nature is available, one may use the expected Monetary value (EMV) approach (also known as Expected Value or EV).If probabilistic information regarding the states of nature is available, one may use the expected Monetary value (EMV) approach (also known as Expected Value or EV). Here the expected return for each decision is calculated by summing the products of the payoff under each state of nature and the probability of the respective state of nature occurring.Here the expected return for each decision is calculated by summing the products of the payoff under each state of nature and the probability of the respective state of nature occurring. The decision yielding the best expected return is chosen.The decision yielding the best expected return is chosen.

15. 15 Slide Expected Value of a Decision Alternative n The expected value of a decision alternative is the sum of weighted payoffs for the decision alternative. n The expected value (EV) of decision alternative d i is defined as: where: N = the number of states of nature P ( s j ) = the probability of state of nature s j P ( s j ) = the probability of state of nature s j V ij = the payoff corresponding to decision alternative d i and state of nature s j V ij = the payoff corresponding to decision alternative d i and state of nature s j

16. 16 Slide Example: Marketing Strategy n Expected Value Approach Refer to the previous problem. Assume the probability of the market being receptive is known to be 0.75. Use the expected monetary value criterion to determine the optimal decision.

17. 17 Slide Expected Value of Perfect Information n Frequently information is available that can improve the probability estimates for the states of nature. n The expected value of perfect information (EVPI) is the increase in the expected profit that would result if one knew with certainty which state of nature would occur. n The EVPI provides an upper bound on the expected value of any sample or survey information.

18. 18 Slide Expected Value of Perfect Information n EVPI Calculation Step 1:Step 1: Determine the optimal return corresponding to each state of nature. Step 2:Step 2: Compute the expected value of these optimal returns. Compute the expected value of these optimal returns. Step 3:Step 3: Subtract the EV of the optimal decision from the amount determined in step (2).

19. 19 Slide Example: Marketing Strategy n Expected Value of Perfect Information Calculate the expected value for the best action for each state of nature and subtract the EV of the optimal decision. EVPI=.75(25,000) +.25(6,000) - 19,500 = $750 EVPI=.75(25,000) +.25(6,000) - 19,500 = $750

20. 20 Slide The End of Chapter